YORKSHIRE

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

JOURNAL

VOLUME 82 2010

Cover design by Tony Berry

THE

YORKSHIRE

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

JOURNAL

A REVIEW

OF HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE COUNTY PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION

OF THE

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

EDITED BY EDWARD ROYLE AND JILL WILSON

VOLUME 82

FOR THE YEAR 2010

ISSN 0084-4276

THE YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Charity number 224083

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY SMITH SETTLE

THE YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Claremont, 23 Clarendon Road, LEEDS, LS2 9NZ Telephone (0113) 245 7910 http://www.yas.org.uk

PATRONS

Sir Marcus Worsley, Bt.

Lord Crathorn, Lord Lieutenant of North Yorkshire Dr Ingrid Mary Roscoe, FSA, Lord Lieutenant of West Yorkshire The Right Reverend and Right Honourable Dr David Hope The Most Reverend and Right Honourable Dr John Sentamu

PRESIDENT

R.A. Hall

HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS

G.C.F. Forster L.A.S. Butler R.M. Butler P.V. Addyman

VICE-PRESIDENTS

J. le Patouel S. Thomas

P.B. Davidson R. Morris

MANAGEMENT BOARD

Bray ford, P.

Cruse, R.J. Edwards, M. Forster, G.C.F. Korna, J.

Roberts, I.

Scholey, M. Thomas, S. Tylee, M. Wilson, P.

Matthews, F.

COUNCIL

Brayford, P, Cruse, R. J., Edwards, M., Forster, G.C.F., Korna, J., Matthews, F., Roberts, I., Scholey, M., Thomas, S., Tylee, M., Wilson, P.

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY Hon. Secretary: M.J. Heron Hon. Treasurer: J.M. Lucas

joint Hon. Editors: J. Wilson (Archaeology), E. Royle (History)

Hon. Series Editor: RR. Wilson Hon, Sec Grants Fund: I.D. Roberts Senior Librarian 8c Archivist: R. Frost

HON. SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS, ETC.

Parish Register Section: RM. Litton Hon. Sec. 8c Editor, Record Series: C. Webb Wakefield Court Rolls Section: C M. Fraser Family History: J. Butler Industrial History (Contact): M. Tylee Medieval Section: M. Edwards Prehistory Research Section: R.J. Cruse Roman Antiquities Section: PR. Wilson

Contact all Officers and Secretaries of Sections through Claremont

REPRESENTATIVES OF GROUPS 8c AFFILIATED SOCIETIES:

Claro Community Archaeology Group: P. Eaton Craven Museum 8c Gallery: (No representative)

Doncaster Group: P. West

East Riding Arch. Research Trust: T.G. Manby East Riding Archaeological Society: P. Brayford Forest of Galtres Society: F. Kirk

Great Ayton Community Archaeological Project: M.S. Nash Harrogate Archaeological Society: A. Kirk

Huddersfield & District Archaeological Society: E.A. Vickerman

Hunter 'Archaeology Group: R. Morgan

Ingleborough Archaeology Group: A. King

Northallerton 8c District Local History Society: J. Sheehan

Olicana Historical Society: M.H. Long

Pontefract 8c District Archaeological Society: E. Houlder

Saddleworth Historical Society: R. Cann, Chairman

Scarborough Archaeological 8c Historical Society: P. Wilson

Sedbergh 8c District Historical Society: (No representative)

Skipton 8c Craven Historical Society: D.C. Grant Upper Wharfedale Field Society: D. Johnson Wakefield Historical Society: C.M.P. Taylor

Yorks. Architectural 8c York Archaeological Society: K. Hunter-Mann Yorkshire Vernacular Buildings Study Group: J. Quarmby

EDITORIAL NOTE

As this volume of the Yorkshire Archaeological Journal came close to completion Jill Wilsoir, the Yorkshire Archaeological Society’s Honorary Archaeological Editor from volume 76 (2004) onwards, decided to resign from that position. Over the last six years she has been responsible not only for editing its archaeological content but has also, most generously, undertaken freely the paging and layout of the Journal. The Society is extremely grateful to her for all her hard work in this and other areas of our publications programme.

The paging and layout of this volume has been undertaken by Lesley Collett at York Archaeological Trust.

CONTENTS

PALAEOEN VI RON MENTAL EVIDENCE FROM DEPOSITS AT BE DALE, NORTH YORKSHIRE

Benjamin Gearey and Enid Allison with John Carrott, Allan Hall,

Jennifer Proctor and Alexandra Schmidl ’ 1

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE FROM HAYTON, EAST YORKS Peter Halkon, T. G. Manby, Martin Millett and Helen Woodhouse with contributions from Rachel Ballantyne, Barry Bishop, Jacqui Huntley and Deborah J aques 31

THE DRUIDS’ ALTAR: A ‘SCOTTISH’ STONE CIRCLE IN CRAVEN, NORTH YORKSHIRE

R. Martlew 59

EXCAVATIONS AT LOW FISHER GATE, DONCASTER,

SOUTH YORKSHIRE

J. M. McComish, A. J. Mainman, A. Jenner and N. Rogers (York Archaeological Trust) 73

LIME KILNS IN THE CENTRAL PENNINES: RESULTS OF A FIELD SURVEY IN THE YORKSHIRE DALES AND CONTIGUOUS AREAS OF NORTH AND WEST YORKSHIRE

David Johnson 231

DEFAMING THE DEAD: A CONTESTED GHOST STORY FROM FIFTEENTH-CENTURY YORKSHIRE

R.N. Swanson 263

THE TOWER OF ABBOT MARMADUKE HUBY OF FOUNTAINS AB- BEY: HUBRIS OR PIETY?

Michael Carter 269

WILLIAM WRIGHTSON (1676-1760), THE PIPE OFFICE OF THE EXCHEQUER, AND THE RE-BUILDING OF CUSWORTH HALL Brian Barber 287

THE SEVENTH EARL OF CARLISLE AND THE CASTLE HOWARD ESTATE: WHIGGERY, RELIGION AND IMPROVEMENT, 1830-1864 David Gent 315

BISHOP WILLIAM STUBBS AND KNARESBOROUGH

Richard M. Koch 343

‘OF MODERN ORIGIN AND SPURIOUS CHARACTER’: THE HULL CELEBRITIES AND THE JOHNSON MANUSCRIPT

Paul Leaver 363

NEWTON WALLIS: THE EVOLUTION OF A LANDSCAPE

Edgar N. Pickles . .....373

COMMUNICATIONS:

DANELAW CENTRE FOR LIVING HISTORY AT THE YORKSHIRE MUSEUM OF FARMING, MURTON PARK, YORK Mike Tyler 383

OBITUARIES:

MRS KATE M. MASON 385

DR K. J. ALLISON 387

JOHN TAYLOR 389

BOOK REVIEWS 391

SHORT NOTICES

399

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Dr Enid Allison currently works for Canterbury Archaeological Trust overseeing environmental sampling and processing from sites in Kent, and carrying out insect analyses from sites throughout Britain and Ireland.

Brian Barber was a research student of the late Maurice Beresford at the University of Leeds and then became an archivist. Since his early retirement in 2006 he has been spending part of his time researching subjects suggested to him in three decades of cataloguing archives in West Yorkshire and Doncaster. His History of Doncaster was published in 2007.

Michael Carter is a mature PhD student at the Courtauld Institute of Art, London. The subject of his research is Cistercian art and architecture in northern England in the late Middle Ages.

Dr Ben Gearey MIfA (Research Fellow, Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity, University of Birmingham) is an environmental archaeologist with research interests in wetland archaeology, palaeoenvironments and the geoarchaeology of alluvial landscapes. He has previously worked at the University of Hull as part of the English Heritage funded Humber Wetlands Project and at the University of Exeter.

David Gent recently completed a doctorate at the University of York on aristocratic Whiggery in early-Victorian Yorkshire, focusing on the philanthropist and politician George Howard, seventh Earl of Carlisle (1802-1864). He worked in close collaboration with Castle Howard, and was co-curator of an exhibition held at the house on Carlisle’s life. Since completing his doctorate, he has been employed by the Borthwick Institute for Archives to work on a project on the papers of the ecclesiastical courts of York. He has broad research interests in the political, intellectual and religious history of nineteenth-century Britain.

Dr Peter Halkon is Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Hull.

Anne Jenner is a Ceramic Researcher at York Archaeological Trust and a specialist in medieval pottery. She also teaches and trains people who are interested in a number of subjects, including prehistoric and post-Roman ceramics and archaeological illustration.

David Johnson initially trained as a geographer, with an emphasis on historical geography, and historian but over time has developed a keen interest in landscape archaeology He is an accepted authority on lime burning and the use of lime, and his doctorate was awarded for a study of the use of lime as a soil improver from the thirteenth century to about 1900. He has published and lectured widely on his key research themes. He is Chairman of the very active and well-respected Ingleborough Archaeology Group

Richard M. Koch read History both as an undergraduate and graduate at Leeds University. Under John Taylor and Wendy Childs he studied medieval chronicles and literary sources,

the reign of Richard II and also the political and posthumous career of Thomas of Lancaster. He then obtained his PhD at the University of Connecticut, Storrs, with a thesis on the life and work of William Stubbs as historian and clergyman. He is currently working on a study of the personal and historical friendship between William Stubbs, J. R. Green and E. A. Freeman. Mr. Koch now lives in Hartford, Connecticut, USA, teaching History at Hillyer College, University of Hartford, and at Quinnipiac University, Hamden, Connecticut.

Paul Leaver, after a career of almost twenty years in education, completed an MA in Historical Research at the University of Hull in 2000, with a dissertation that focused on English held castles in Scotland during the early years of the reign of Edward III. Since then he has worked at Hull City Archives.

Dr Ailsa Mainman is Assistant Director and Head of Artefact Research at York Archaeological Trust. She has published studies of Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval pottery and is currently completing a volume on medieval pottery from York whilst working on medieval and post-medieval pottery from current excavations at Hungate.

Terry Manby, East Riding Archaeological Research Trust.

Roger Martlew lectured in archaeology at Leicester and Leeds Universities. On the closure of the School of Continuing Education at Leeds he set up the Yorkshire Dales Landscape Research Trust, which runs an active research programme of survey and excavation in the Dales (www.ydlrt.co.uk).

Jane McComish has been a field officer with York Archaeological Trust since 1983. She has largelv worked on urban excavations, cemetery excavations, recording building fabric and the recording of ceramic building materials.

Martin Millett is Laurence Professor of Classical Archaeology, Cambridge University.

Edgar Pickles is retired and a member of the Kippax and District Historical Society. He edited and contributed to the Society’s A History of Kippax (2006) and has compiled several books of photographs of Kippax. His latest publication is as joint author of a new history of Kippax parish church.

Nicola Rogers is an Artefact Researcher at York Archaeological Trust, with an extensive knowledge of medieval objects.

Robert Swanson was Assistant Archivist at what was then the Borthwick Institute of Historical Research in York from 1975 to 1979, and is now Professor of Medieval History at the University of Birmingham. He has written extensively on church history from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries, particularly in England. His most recent book is Indulgences in Late Medieval England: Passports to Paradise? (Cambridge University Press, 2007).

Dr Helen Woodhouse, English Heritage and Woodhouse Consultancy.

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM DEPOSITS AT BEDALE, NORTH YORKSHIRE

By Benjamin Gearey and Enid Allison with John Carrott, Allan Hall, Jennifer Proctor

and A1 exandra Schmidl

INTRODUCTION

A phased programme of archaeological investigations was undertaken by Pre- Construct Archaeology Limited in advance of development of land to the rear of 26 Market Place, Bedale, North Yorkshire (Fig. 1 ). The central National Grid Ref- erence of the site is SE 265 881. The archaeological project was commissioned by CgMs Consulting, on behalf of McCarthy and Stone (Developments) Limited, and monitored by the Heritage Unit of North Yorkshire County Council, on behalf of the Local Planning Authority, Hambleton District Council. A preliminary archaeo- logical evaluation, undertaken in spring 2002, revealed the presence of a prehis- toric wetland area. This comprised substantial organic silt sediments representing deposition within a body of water, such as a lake or palaeochannel, overlain by an extensive peat formation. Radiocarbon dating of the peat placed accumula- tion of the material in the Mesolithic period. Archaeological remains of medieval and post-medieval date were also recorded in the evaluation trenches. A more extensive open area excavation was undertaken, in the autumn of 2003, in order

Fig. 1: Site Location

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Fig. 2: Areas of investigation

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

3

to further investigate the ancient wetland and overlying medieval deposits. The excavation focussed on the footprint of the main building in the development and comprised an irregular, but roughly rectangular, trench with maximum dimen- sions 64m NE-SW x 22m NW-SE, covering c. 1 ,100 square metres (Fig. 2). A paper describing the medieval and post-medieval archaeological remains (Proctor et al. 2008) also contains full details of the site location and description, historical back- ground and archaeological methodologies employed, but relevant information is summarised here. Full details of the earlier assessment and subsequent works are presented in Carrott et al. (2004) and Gearey et al. (2006), respectively.

Overburden was removed by machine under archaeological supervision across the excavation area and a NE-SW aligned sonclage was excavated by machine along the south-western limit of excavation. The purpose of this sondage was to examine, in section, the prehistoric wetland deposits. Other sondages were hand- excavated through the wetland deposits (Fig. 3): towards the south-western end of the excavation area (Sections 1 and 2), centrally (Section 18) and adjacent to the north-eastern limit of excavation (Section 17). Four column samples, comprising two parallel columns in each section, were taken through the wetland deposits in Section 17 (Samples 1 and 2) and Section 18 (Samples 3 and 4). Preliminary analysis of pollen and plant and invertebrate macrofossils, along with targeted radiocarbon dating of organic material, confirmed the findings of the original ar- chaeological evaluation, in that the organic silts and peats represented an area of ancient wetland of early Holocene origin, in archaeological terms, derived from the Mesolithic period. Significant at a regional level, these deposits had potential to acid considerably to current understanding of early Holocene landscape and climate changes in the area. Accordingly, Sample 3 was selected for further de- tailed analysis leading to full publication of the results, as detailed in this paper. The sequence of deposits in Section 18 comprised approximately 1.50m of muds/ organic silts (the lower half of the sequence) and detritus peat layers (the upper half) which were sampled via two parallel series of four overlapping 0.50m column tins (Column Samples 3 and 4, Tins A to D; see Fig. 7). The deposits (as seen in Column Sample 3) were recorded following the sediment classification system of Troels-Smith (1955), together with a brief written description (Table 1).

NATURAL DEPOSITS

Glacial sand and gravel was exposed at the south-western end of the excavation area at a maximum height of 40. 10m OD, sloping away gently to the south (Fig. 3). To the north-east, in evaluation Trench 1, glacial sand and gravel overlain by boul- der clay was exposed in the northern portion of the trench at a maximum height of 41.12m OD. Encountered across the excavation area were thick deposits of laminated organic silts representing water deposited sediments. It was not possible to determine within the excavated area whether this material was deposited within a palaeochannel or a discrete body of water, such as a lake or pond. Sections 1 and 2 excavated through the deposits revealed the gently sloping profile of the feature

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Table 1: Summary of the column sample descriptions for Section 18. The deposits are listed in stratigraphic sequence from top to bot- tom with their positions within the individual monoliths recorded from the base of each tin. Where the overlapping of the monoli t Is his resulted in the same deposit being present in two tins the positions within each are given. The ‘Troels-Smith’ column gives descriptions following Troels-Smith (1955).

PALAEO E N V 1 RO N M E NTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDAEE

5

, A A

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wetland deposits conjectured wetland deposits sand and gravel

N

A

0

25m

Fig. 3: Wetland deposits

(Figs. 4 and 5). Section 1 recorded a basal height at 39.14m OD, comparable to the 39.08m OD recorded on sand and gravel at the base of the body of water, to the east in Section 17 (Fig. 6). The organic silts largely comprised layers of fine silt and sand, with occasional clay bands, varying in colour from very light brown through to dark brown, with occasional bine and green hues. The thickest full sequence was in Section 17, where a total of 0.70m of material was exposed, this lying close to the edge of the body of water. In the central part of the excavation area, the full thickness of deposits could not be exposed due to health and safety considerations. The edge of the feature was also recorded to the north-east of the excavation area, in evaluation Trench 1 , indicating that the body of water extended across an area measuring at least 75m NE-SW by 25m NW-SE.

Peat layers overlay the organic silts across the excavation area and were also recorded to the north-east, in evaluation Trench 1 . The maximum recorded thick- ness of the peat formation was c. 1.0m, in Section 18 in the central part of the excavation area (Fig. 7), with the material thinning out towards the edges of the wetland area (Figs. 4 and 5). The highest level recorded for peat at the site was 40.14m OD, in evaluation Trench 1 , on the north-eastern margins of the wetland.

6

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

WNW ESE

40.00mOD

laminated organic silts

Fig. 4: Section 1 through wetland deposits

NW SE

40.00mOD

peat

laminated organic silts

Fig. 5: Section 2 through wetland deposits

1m

METHODS

Radiocarbon dates

A total of seven radiocarbon dates were obtained to establish a chronology for the sequence of deposits, - six at the assessment stage and one additional date dur- ing analysis (from —90 g of organic sediment taken from the top of the laminated silts/muds, Context 175, in Column Sample 4). The selection of dating points was made to reflect clear or suspected changes in the nature of the deposits (e.g. fol- lowing major context divisions). Lor four of the deposits radiocarbon dated for

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

7

the assessment, plant macrofossils (for dating via accelerator mass spectrometry - AMS) were recovered from the processed snbsamples prior to the application of paraffin flotation. Two of the snbsamples extracted from Column Sample 3 (from Contexts 71 and 172) were not processed for assessment as they appeared of very similar composition to those above, and above and below, respectively, in the se- quence. For these, 50mm ‘spits’ of raw sediment (from 10 to 60mm from the low- est point of each deposit) were sent for dating. After pre-treatment, Context 172 gave 1.6g of organic remains which were dated by AMS. Context 71 gave rather more organic material (7.4g) and radiometric dating with extended counting was employed. All of the radiocarbon dating was undertaken by Beta Analytic Inc. (Miami, Florida, LISA).

Diatoms

The lower mud/organic silt deposits were initially assessed for the presence of diatoms (subsamples at 1.02m, 1.22m, 1.29m and 1.49m, all within Context 176; preparations following Batterbee et al. 2001), but none were detected and no fur- ther analysis was undertaken.

NW SE

40.00mOD

laminated organic silts sand and gravel

Fig. 6: Section ] 7 through wetland deposit

8

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

NE

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Pollen

For the assessment, a total of 1 5 pollen subsamples were taken from Section 1 8 (Column Sample 4). Ten of these were from the peat layer (Contexts 71, 171, 172, 173) at 0.08m intervals and five from the laminated organic silts/muds (Contexts 175 and 176) at 0.16m intervals. For the final analysis, further subsamples for pol- len were extracted to reduce the previous sampling intervals to 0.04m and 0.08m, respectively. A closer sampling interval was used for the upper half of the sequence as the assessment had indicated that there were more fluctuations in the spectra here.

Pollen preparation followed standard procedures including HE treatment and acetylation (Moore et at. 1991). At least 300 total land pollen grains (TLP) exclud- ing aquatics and spores were counted for each sample where possible. However, pollen concentrations were found to be too low for reliable counts at the following

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

9

points: 0.17m, 0.21m, 0.41m, 0.45m, 0.49m, 0.85m ancl 0.89m. These data are not plotted on the pollen diagram (Eig. 8). Pollen nomenclature follows Moore et al. (1991), with the modifications suggested by Bennett et al. (1994). The pollen sum is based on percentage of TLP excluding obligate aquatics and spores. Percentages for these excluded groups are calculated as percentage of the basic sum plus sum of the relevant group.

Plant and invertebrate macrofossils

The other column sample from Section 1 8 (Column Sample 3) was divided into subsamples according to the excavators’ allocated contexts and, for Context 176, where minor variations were observed. This resulted in eleven subsamples, of var- ying size, which were processed following the procedures of Kenward et al. (1980; 1986), for the recovery of plant ancl invertebrate macrofossils (with the exception of some of the sediment from Contexts 71 and 172 used for radiocarbon dating, see above).

Plant remains in the processed subsample fractions (residues and flots) were identified using a low-power binocular microscope. The remains were recorded semi-quantitatively on a three-point scale of abundance: 4 = present, i.e. one or relatively few remains or less than 10% by volume; ++ = common, or about 10- 50% by volume; + + + = abundant, or more than 50% by volume. Nomenclature for plant taxa follows Stace (1997).

Beetle and bug remains were removed on to moist filter paper for identifica- tion using a low-power binocular microscope. Numbers of individuals and taxa of beetles (Coleoptera) and bugs (Hemiptera) were recorded. Other invertebrate taxa were noted if present, and their abundance recorded on a semi-quantitative three-point scale (as for the plant remains, see previous paragraph). Nomencla- ture for beetles ancl bugs follows Kloet and Hincks (1964-77) and snails follow Kerney (1999).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Radiocarbon dates

The radiocarbon dates gave a 2-sigma calibrated (95% probability) timeframe for the deposits ranging from Cal BP 9920-9600 to Cal BP 8180-8000, with the earliest peat layers being dated to Cal BP 9000-8620. The individual results from radiocarbon dating of the selected deposits are detailed in Table 2. Interestingly, three of the dates returned, those from Contexts 171, 172 and 173, were effec- tively the same but represent around 0.25m of deposit, suggesting a rapid devel- opment of the peat at this time or mixing of the deposits; visual description of these deposits did reveal them all to contain both mud ancl detritus peat (Table 1), perhaps favouring the latter.

10

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Fig. 8: Pollen diag

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BED ALE

11

Dates quoted in the following text refer to the 2-sigma calibrated radiocarbon age obtained, unless stated otherwise.

Diatoms

Although no identifiable diatoms were detected, the presence of copulae (girdle bands connecting the diatom frustules) in some of the assessment subsamples in- dicated that diatoms had once been present. The absence of identifiable remains may be a result of the acid environment causing dissolution of the silica based frustules.

Pollen

The pollen diagram for deposits in Section 18 (Fig. 8) reflects a sequence of early Holocene vegetation changes on and around a shallow body of water which infilled through natural processes of hydroserai succession. The diagram has been divided into five Local Pollen Assemblage Zones (LPAZ) prefixed ‘BED’ and based on changes in the biostratigraphy; the main features of these zones are given in Table 3.

The radiocarbon dates indicated that sediment accumulation began at Cal BP 9920-9600 (Beta- 187370). The basal zone, BED-1 corresponds to the laminated organic silts/muds and reflects sediment accumulation within a body of water such as a pond/lake or perhaps slowly flowing water within a palaeochannel. High per- centages of Corylus avellana- type pollen indicate a hazel ( Corylus ) dominated wood/ scrub land around the sampling site. Other trees and shrubs were recorded at lower percentages but it seems likely that birch ( Betula ) formed a secondary com- ponent of the local vegetation, with elm (Ulmus) also growing as a subordinate tree on better-drained soils in the wider landscape. Scots pine ( Pinas sylvestris L.) was not present to any great extent and, perhaps more surprisingly, neither appar- ently was oak ( (Quercus , see below).

Little herbaceous pollen was recorded, suggesting a dense canopy with a depau- perate understorey. The occasional grains that were observed included Filipendula (meadowsweet), Caryophyllaceae (pink family), Apiaceae (carrot family) and Succisa pratensis Moench (devil’s bit scabious); these taxa probably represent wetland/tall herb vegetation communities on the damper soils at the edge of the basin, and the ferns Thelypteris palustns Schott (marsh fern) and Equisetum (horsetail ferns) would probably also have grown in this habitat. Only a single grain of Typha latifolia L. (reed-mace) indicated aquatic taxa in this zone.

BED-2 opens at a date of Cal BP 9290-9020 (Beta-216398) with a marked ex- pansion of sedges (Carex) and ferns (Pteropsida), whilst hazel displays a concomitant decline. However, it is unlikely that this represents the actual replacement of hazel by these taxa. The stratigraphic transition from laminated organic silts to peat at

12

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PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

13

Zone	Depth-m	Main characteristics
BED-5	0.14-0.27	Pinus increases to —35%, Corylus to 25% and Alnus to 9%. He Lid a reduced to 5%, Quercus to trace (<1%>) values and Cyperaceae to 20%.
BED-4	0.27-0.45	An equally sharp peak of 50% in Betula follows a pronounced peak of 50% in Pinus. Corylus increases to —20% but falls to —2% by close of zone. Cyperaceae drops steadily to 35%. Pteropsida increases to 90%TLP+ spores.
BED-3	0.45-0.75	Pinus drops at the opening of the zone before rising to 25% before drop- ping to 12%, Qiiercus also shows an increase to 10% at the opening of the zone. Corylus at —10%. High Cyperaceae percentages (60%) throughout, whilst Pteropsida rises to 70%.
BED-2	0.75-0.95	Pinus increases to around 15%, but other trees including Qiiercus, Ulmus and Betula all decline and Corylus shows a significant fall to —35%. Cy- peraceae rises to 30%.
BED-1	0.95-1.65	Dominated by Corylus (70-80%% with other trees including Betula (10%), Ulmus (5%). Qiiercus (2-3%) and Pinus (3-4%) recorded at lower values.

Table 3: Summary of LPAZs for Section 18. All values are TLP unless otherwise stated.

a depth of around 0.90m indicates that the water body in which these sediments were accumulating was infilling as a result of hyclroseral succession. Sedges and ferns were probably spreading onto the surface of the peat, and consequently the pollen record becomes strongly biased in favour of these local plants and away from the vegetation growing in the wider landscape. This process also explains the reductions in oak, elm and birch across this zone since these trees would have been present largely on dryland areas further afield. The rise in pine reflects the ability of this tree to expand onto the damper/poorer soils that became available near the sampling site at this time.

The opening of BED-3 was dated to just after Cal BP 9005-8620 (Beta- 187368). The pollen record continues to be dominated by local vegetation with sedges and ferns remaining established on the sampling site. There was evidence for some fluctuations in the arboreal populations, with oak showing a small increase at the base of the zone, apparently at the expense of pine. Establishing the precise nature and sequence of changes in the upper section of this zone and the basal part of BED-4 is complicated by the absence of countable concentrations of pollen from 0.57m after a date of Cal BP 8395-8175 (Beta- 1 87366). This may be the result of the mire surface drying out; the marked peaks in pine and then birch following the hiatus in the biostratigraphy in BED-4 indicate that water tables had fallen suf- ficiently to allow the surface of the peat to be colonised by these trees. Reductions in sedges at this time may also support the inference of a drier local environment.

Owing to the low concentrations of pollen, there was also a hiatus in the pollen record in the final zone BED-5. Elowever, by the close of the diagram, shortly after Cal BP 8180-8000 (Beta- 187365), pine (Finns), hazel and alder (Alnus) all appear

14

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

to be expanding. The fall in sedges following a recovery at the opening of the zone again could suggest a drier local environment; pine was probably benefiting directly from this on the peat soils near to the sampling site.

Plant and invertebrate macrofossils

Plant macrofossil remains (Table 4) preserved by anoxic waterlogging were generally well-preserved and usually reasonably abundant, though identifiable macrofossils were often of quite restricted diversity, with the bulk of the remains formed by herbaceous and woody detritus, as might be expected in deposits which were largely detritus peats. Preservation of invertebrate remains (Table 5) was very varied within and between deposits. Some assemblages gave the subjective impres- sion that there may have been general decay, so perhaps the sequence as a whole may be at risk from dewatering. The concentration of invertebrates also varied, from very low to moderately high (extremely high if crustaceans are included), probably reflecting ecological conditions, rate of sediment accumulation and (in the case of the waterlain deposits - samples from Contexts 175 and 176) distance from the shoreline.

Many of the plant and insect remains from the two lowest deposits (Context 176, Samples 301-304 and Context 175, Sample 305, corresponding to LPAZ BED-1) were of aquatic taxa. Most of the plant remains identified were those that float on or grow submerged in fresh water (e.g. muskgrass/stonewort - Chara/Characeae , white water-lily - Nymphaea alba) or grow in damp to wet terrestrial places (e.g. many, though not all, of the true sedges - Carex). A record of the weevil Tanysphy- rus lemnae provided indirect evidence of the presence of its host plant, duckweed (. Lemna ). The rest of the invertebrate fauna was also predominantly aquatic and indicated a rich environment, with abundant vegetation (e.g. by the snail Valvata cnstata - Context 176 only). A wide range of beetles and bugs living in pond/lake environments were recorded and beetles found almost exclusively in running wa- ter were also well represented. The elmids, five species of which were recorded here (E solus parallelepipedus, Oulimnius, Limnius volkman , Elmis aenea and Riolus/Nor- mandia), have a system of respiration that requires the very well-oxygenated water found in streams and rivers and also, though more rarely, on the stony shores of lakes; the latter is perhaps the case here although they may also indicate that the sampling point was located at an inflow or outflow point of the former pond/lake or that the deposits formed in slowly flowing water within a palaeochannel. In ad- dition to the elmids, there were several other taxa that live in running water, and the water conditions generally would have been clear and unpolluted. A range of swamp dwelling taxa was represented but open areas of water must also have been present to attract insects such as pond skaters ( Gerris ) - all of the records for pond skaters were from the lower parts of the sequence (Contexts 175 and 176). Aphodius dung beetles were also represented in four samples from the two lowest deposits. Members of this genus are typically found in herbivore dung in the open, but some species are also attracted to foul decomposing plant material.

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

15

Unfortunately, none of the remains could be identified to species and their pres- ence does not necessarily imply the presence of grazing animals nearby. However, their consistent occurrence in these lowest samples, albeit in small numbers, is of note.

From Context 174 upwards (corresponding with the beginning of BED-2), beetles and bugs that would have exploited moss and litter in a swamp became predominant in the assemblages and, indeed, the thin deposit, Context 174, was largely composed of matted Drepanocladus moss. Another moss, Hypnum cf. cupres- siforme, was represented amongst the identifiable plant remains from Context 173. There were shallow, unpolluted well-vegetated pools supporting a substan- tial aquatic fauna, again including Tanysphyrus lemnae (Contexts 174, 172 and 171, but not recorded from Context 173) which implies the presence of duckweed. Apart from moss and duckweed, there were few indications of other vegetation, although some taxa feeding on sedges (Carex) were present and remains of these plants were common in Context 174 and the two immediately overlying deposits (Contexts 173 and 172). There were records of the froghopper Aphrophora major from three of the samples (from Contexts 174 and 173, and the next to uppermost Context 71) in the upper part of the sequence, again implying the presence of a specific host plant, bog-myrtle (Myrica gale L.), although remains of the plant itself were not identified.

For all of the deposits, the plant remains of terrestrial vegetation were dom- inated by birch (determined as silver/downy birch - Betula pendula/B. pubescens where better preserved). Silver birch forms woods on light, mostly acid soils, es- pecially heathland, and usually in drier places than downy birch. In particular, Context 176 (Samples 301-304) gave large quantities of birch female catkin-scales and nuts. The pollen record indicates that hazel dominated the local woodland at this period, with birch as very much a secondary component, but the macrofossil evidence shows the reverse with only a few nut shells confirming the presence of hazel. However, this may simply be a reflection of the greater mobility of the deli- cate birch structures. Oak ( Quercus ), which was surprisingly poorly represented in the pollen record (see below), was similarly sparsely represented in the botanical macrofossil assemblages by small numbers of bucls/bud scales in just two deposits (Contexts 175 and 173). Small numbers of wood-associated invertebrate taxa were also recorded consistently throughout the sequence, but, apart from these, there were few indications of terrestrial habitats other than swamp. Several ground bee- tle taxa (e.g. Pterostichus diligens and P. nigrita ) were typical inhabitants of moist ground and Trechus rivularis was recorded from Context 7 1 close to the top of the sequence. The latter is found on moist shady peat sites often with a growth of birch, alder and willow (Salix), and an underlying vegetation of moss and sedges (Lindroth 1985, 121).

The pollen spectra for the upper third or so of the sequence (LPAZs BED-5, BED-4 and the upper part of BED-3) suggest a relatively ‘dry’ peat accumulat-

16

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

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Sample

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PALAEO ENVIRON MENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

17

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YO R KS HIRE AR G H AEO LOG I CAL J O U RN AL

ing environment (though the area was still clearly ‘swampy’ with very wet areas and probably shallow bodies of standing, though perhaps not always permanent, water) and this was also reflected in the macrofossil assemblages (Contexts 67, 71, 171 and 172). Concentrations of identifiable plant and invertebrate remains were reduced in these upper layers and aquatic and possible wetland species decline or were absent (e.g. Characeae spp., true sedges - Carex, white water-lily). At the same time, there was an increase in wood fragments (including twigs) culminat- ing in these being abundant (with some bark also present) in the uppermost de- posit (Context 67) which corresponds with the expansion of pine, hazel and alder evinced by the pollen in BED-5. A single fragment of a wood boring beetle Gryno- bius planus from Context 67 may also be an indication of trees growing locally.

The distribution of many insects in England is heavily influenced by tempera- ture and consequently the distributions of various species in the past can be used as indicators of climatic change. The bug Hebrus pusillus is of interest in this regard as it is now confined to southern England (Macau 1956; Southwood and Leston 1959, 341-2). It was recorded from the samples from Contexts 173 and 174, and was especially common in the latter. The presence of this species may indicate that the climate of the area at the time the deposits formed was somewhat warmer than at present, perhaps with similar mean temperatures to those of the far south of Britain. In palaeoclimatological terms, the Atlantic period of Holocene northern Europe, with mean temperatures perhaps 2.5°C higher than today, begins be- tween Cal BP 9000 and 8000 (ending around Cal BP 4300 and punctuated by a cooling event at around Cal BP 8200), with some regional variation (this period is still in the process of definition). 4 herefore, it seems likelv that the sudden change in the biostratigraphy seen in Section 18 from Bedale at around 0.93m depth (from BED-1 to BED-2 and dated sometime after Cal BP 9290 and before Cal BP 8620) marks the beginning of the Atlantic period at this site. Contexts 173 and 174 would then have been deposited during this time of warmer climate which would have allowed Hebrus pusillus to extend its range to more northerly locales. It may also be that the less dramatic changes in the biostratigraphy seen for the starts of BED-4 and BED-5 are related to the cooling event of around Cal BP 8200.

OVERVIEW

Strata representing a localised body of water and a former wetland area were recorded in the backlots of properties on Market Place, Bedale. The accumula- tion of water 'lain deposits - represented by laminated organic silts - began in the early Holocene, dated to Cal BP 9920-9600, the Mesolithic period in archaeologi- cal terms. It was not possible to determine for certain within the excavation area whether this body of water was a discrete feature such as a pond or lake or perhaps a palaeochannel. However, although the full extent of the feature was not exposed within the excavated area, it extended over an area measuring at least 75m NE- SW by 25m NW-SE, with the depth of deposits encountered along the south-east- ern edge of the excavation area indicating that it continued for some distance to

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDAEE

19

the south-east. The substantial size of the feature may therefore perhaps suggest that this is more likely to represent a pond or lake rather than a palaeochannek

The lowest part of the organic silt deposits represents sediment accumulation which could have occurred either in a body of water or in slowly flowing water. The plant remains from these lower sediments included species that grow in fresh water. The invertebrate species from these deposits included a wide range of bee- tles and bugs that live in pond or lake environments along with beetles that live almost exclusively in running water. Five species of elmid were recorded and these beetles require well-oxygenated water such as in streams or rivers; several other taxa found in these deposits also require running water and are indicative of clear unpolluted waters. The palaeoenviron mental remains were thus inconclusive and, as details of the local hydrology in the early Holocene period are not known, the feature may represent an infilled palaeochannel, or the sampling point may have been located near to an inflow or outflow point of a pond. Elsewhere in the region, climatic improvement in the late glacial period led to the release of meltwaters, which caused drainage channels to be eroded near the edges of the ice-fronts (Hemingway 1993). As the ice receded further, the meltwaters no longer fed into these drainage channels and they developed into poorly-drained peat-filled hol- lows (ibid.). Bodies of water, such as Lake Pickering, also lost their inflows, leading to the deposition of laminated clays and the subsequent development of peaty marshes.

fhe overall picture was of a closed, hazel-dominated, woodland environment with some birch and elm present. This accords well with the general regional pic- ture of lowland vegetation development in this area during the earlier Holocene (Day 1995). However, one would also expect oak to have formed a significant component of the woodland at Bedale, but this does not appear to have been the case. This is perhaps hard to explain on ecological grounds since this tree was well established in northern England by this time (Birks 1989), but interpretation of the wider landscape was hindered by the fact that for much of the sequence, and particularly from BED-2, the pollen record was strongly biased towards vegetation growing locally.

Following the growth of peat on the sampling site, from around Cal BP 9290- 9020 BP, a sedge fen developed, and this vegetation dominates the pollen record for much of the diagram. This was evidently a relatively ‘dry’ peat-accumulating environment, with abundant ferns but few other wetland plants indicated. As mentioned above, phases of dry mire surface could be responsible for the low pol- len concentrations in the BED-4 sequence after Cal BP 8395-8175 and the hiatus in BED-5.

The fluctuations in the arboreal taxa appear largely to reflect localised processes of competition between birch and pine connected to the growth of peat rather than competitive interactions in the wider landscape (see, for example, Bennett 1986).

20

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

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Cladocera spp. (ephippia)

Ostracoda sp.

Lygaeidae spp.

Cymus glandicolor Hahn

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Saldidae sp.

Hebrus pusillus Fallen

Hebrus ruficeps Thomson

Gerris sp.

Corixidae sp.

Heteroptera spp.

Aphrophora major Uhler

Delphacidae spp.

Auchenorhyncha spp.

Psyllidae sp. indet.

Aphidoidea sp.

Bibionidae sp.

Diptera spp. (adults)

Diptera spp. (puparia)

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Hymenoptera Parasitica spp.

Leistus sp.

Clivina sp.

Tree bus rivularis ( Gy lien hal )

Bembidion ( Philochthus ) sp.

Pterostichus diligens (Sturm)

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

21

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Pterostichus minor (Gyllenhal)

Pterostichus nigrita (Paykull)

Pterostichus spp.

Agonum sp.

Carabidae spp.

Hah pi us spp.

Noterus sp.

Bidessus unistriatus (Schrank)

Plygrotus inaequalis (Fabricius)

Suphrodytes dorsalis (Fabricius)

Hydroporus spp.

Stictota rsus duodecimp ustu latus (Degeer)

Hydroporinae spp.

Agahus hipustulatus (Linnaeus)

Agahus sp.

Agahus or Ilybius spp.

Colymhetes fuscus (Linnaeus)

Colymbetinae sp.

i Hydaticus transversalis (Pon- toppidan)

Acilius sp.

Dytiscus sp.

Dytiscidae spp.

Gyrinus sp.

22

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Anacaena spp.

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Pselaphus heisei (Herbst)

Pselaphidae spp.

Aphodius spp.

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24

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

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Insecta spp. (larva)

Acarina spp.

Araneae spp.

Valvata cristata Muller

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Pisidium sp.

Mollusca spp.

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26

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Lollowing the spread of the main arboreal taxa at the opening of the Holocene, competitively inferior taxa such as birch and pine were excluded to poorer or wet- ter soils such as those that were present at and around the sampling site. The pol- len diagram derived from Section 18 at Bedale therefore provides a ‘snapshot’ of the local processes of vegetation change in the vicinity over a period of about 1500 years; such site specific information tends to be invisible in the analysis of pollen sequences from multiple sampling sites which reflect changes in the vegetation of the wider landscape (see Day 1995).

Overall, the plant and insect assemblages support the pollen evidence indicating aquatic deposition throughout, though in the upper (peat) layers of the sequence this was in a swamp environment rather than the open water implied by the as- semblages from the lower (mud/organic silt) layers. The insect assemblages in par- ticular mirror the pollen evidence for a natural hydroserai succession leading to swampy sedge fen with Myrica (though there was no specific evidence for this plant in the botanical material). Of particular note were records of remains of the bug Hebrus pusillus which imply that a mean temperature around 2.5°C higher than today prevailed between c. Cal BP 9290 and Cal BP 8620 and suggest that this marks the beginning of the Atlantic period of the Holocene for this site.

At Bedale, the recovered data provides important information regarding the local natural habitats of the Mesolithic period but, unfortunately, no insights re- garding human interaction with the environment; there was a complete absence of evidence for human activity (e.g. no synanthropic invertebrates or micro-/macro- fossil charcoal). The density and extent of Mesolithic settlement remains unclear for the region as a whole, largely as a result of the limited amount of archaeological research that has been undertaken, and evidence for general activity of the period is restricted to a relatively small number of flint scatters. One example of the lat- ter comes from fieldwalking around the Thornborough area, approximately 8km south-east of Bedale, where a small but significant quantity of recovered flint prob- ably represents small scale episodic activity in keeping with a general Mesolithic hunter-gatherer model of mobile family groups (Harding 2003). Such groups would have exploited a wide range of resources, with a subsistence economy based on hunting, fishing and the collecting of wild plant foods (e.g. fruits, berries, nuts and roots). Any localised variations in habitat, such as the wetlands at Beclale, would likely have been utilised as a resource base in the subsistence pattern of the culture.

Despite the lack of evidence for human activity in the Mesolithic period in the data recovered from Bedale, other sites in the region have provided evidence for human modification of the environment at this time. Archaeological investiga- tions at Seamer Carr, near Scarborough in the Vale of Pickering, have revealed important information about Mesolithic exploitation of a lowland area in North Yorkshire, as well as the environmental conditions prevalent at the time. Deposits similar to those seen at Bedale, provided evidence of a range of environments in-

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM BEDALE

27

eluding open water, reed-bed, saw sedge and fen carr, together with small islands occupied by ferns and birch woodland (Simmons et al. 1993, 20). However, unlike the Bedale deposits, the peat deposits at Seamer Carr contain a thick band of charcoal at the transition to the Atlantic period of the Holocene, a time when the margins of Lake Pickering were beginning to dry out, and the pollen diagram at this time shows an increase in alder pollen, as well as an atypical increase in grasses and other open habitat taxa (ibid., 21). T hese observations, together with the pres- ence of Mesolithic artefacts along the former lake margins at Seamer Carr, argue for an interpretation of the charcoal layer to be a result of deliberate clearance by humans rather than natural fire (ibid.).

Pre-Construct Archaeology (PCA) would like to thank CgMs Consulting for com- missioning the archaeological project in Bedale on behalf of McCarthy and Stone (Developments) Limited. Particular thanks are due to Rob Bourn from CgMs for his liaison role. The input of Gail Falkingham of the Heritage Unit at North York- shire County Council and Ian Panter, English Heritage Regional Advisor for Ar- chaeological Science, is gratefully acknowledged.

Palaeoenvironmental analysis of material from the evaluation phase of work was undertaken by Archaeological Services, University of Durham, and for the excava- tion phase such work was co-ordinated by John Carrott of Palaeoecology Research Services Ltd (PRS). Radiocarbon dating for both phases of work was carried out by Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, Florida, USA.

The Project Manager for PCA was Robin Taylor-Wilson and the Post-excavation Manager was Jennifer Proctor. The evaluation was supervised by Mark Rander- son and Robin Taylor-Wilson and the excavation was supervised by Gavin Glover. Archaeologists who assisted during fieldwork at the site were: Emma Allen, Tony Baxter, Catrin Jenkins, Denise Mulligan, Julie Parker, Alan Telford and Katie White. All illustrations were prepared by Adrian Bailey.

John Carrott of PRS would like to thank the following: Deborah Jaques (verte- brate remains; PRS), Stewart Gardner and Kathryn Johnson (sample processing; both formerly of PRS), Harry Kenward (insect and other non-molluscan inverte- brates; (English Heritage) Senior Research Fellow, based within the Department of Archaeology, University of York) and K. Tracey Yates (diatoms; Wetland Environ- ments and Archaeology Research Centre, Department of Geography, University of Hull).

28

YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

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Spratt, D. A., ed., 1993. Prehistoric and Roman Archaeology in North-East Yorkshire, CBA Research Report 87, London

Stace, C. 1997. New flora of the British Isles: 2nd edition, Cambridge

Troels-Smith, J. 1955. ‘Karakterising af Ipse jordarter (Characterisation of unconsolidated sediments)’, Danmarks Geologiske Underspgelser, Ser. IV, 3(10), 1-73

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE FROM

HAYTON, EAST YORKS

By Peter Halkon, T. G. Manby, Martin Millett and Helen Woodhouse

with contributions from Rachel Ballantyne, Barry Bishop,

Jacqui Huntley and Deborah Jaques

INTRODUCTION

In the period 1995-2001 excavations were undertaken on an Iron Age and Ro- mano-British settlement at Burnby Lane, Hayton (NGR SE 82554650) as part of the Hayton Landscape Project (Fig. 1). Throughout these excavations prehistoric worked flints were consistently found in the topsoil and redeposited in other con- texts. During the 1999 excavation season a group of four shallow pits containing

Fig. 1: Location of Hayton in East Yorkshire

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Neolithic pottery were excavated. The present paper provides a report on these features and their contents. Lull information on the later phases of the site will be the subject of a forthcoming monograph (Halkon et at. in prep.). The finds and site archive are held at Hull City Museums (Accession no. KINCM 1020.1995).

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT AT HAYTON, E. YORKS.

33

The site lies immediately to the south of Burnby Lane in a field just east of Hayton. It is located on a well-drained but narrow gravel terrace at about 24m above sea level that runs along the north side of the Burnby Beck. This stream flows from the chalk hills of the Yorkshire Wolds southwards to join the Foulness drainage system and thence into the Humber. The excavation uncovered a total area of 3438.5m2, and revealed a long and complex sequence of Iron Age and Romano-British settlement features. In addition, there were a number of undated post holes and pits: it is not impossible that some of these are also Neolithic in date but we have no reason to believe that this is the case. For this reason only the pits and their contents are presented here, together with the flints from the excava- tion which are broadly contemporaneous. As the pits were clustered towards the southern and western limits of the main area of the excavation it is reasonably likely that further Neolithic features may remain undiscovered. In addition to the stratified Neolithic pottery one residual rim sherd was identified in the fill of a Roman-period gully.

THE EXCAVATED FEATURES

The four pits (Fig. 2) were identified as Neolithic on the basis of the pottery: all were cut into the natural gravel and sealed by plonghsoil. Ploughing had removed any surface deposits in this part of the site whilst Pits 2 and 3 had also been badly truncated by a major Iron Age enclosure ditch. Pits 1, 2 and 3 were recognized as being Neolithic at the time of excavation so were fully sampled with their con- tents being floated. Samples from the other pit were taken as part of the routine sampling of the site but it was only recognised as being of Neolithic date after excavation.

Pit 1 (Fig. 3 & Fig. 4)

(Contexts 1784 cut, fills: 1783, 1786, 1787, 2018)

Although slightly over excavated (2018) the pit was sub-rounded c. 1.17m in diameter with a shallow U-shaped profile, 0.27m in depth. Its fills 1783, 1786 and 1787 consisted of reddish orange silty clays.

Pit 2 (Fig. 3 & Fig. 4)

(Contexts 2063 cut, fills 2064 and 2165)

This pit had been severely truncated by an Iron Age ditch but appears to have been of roughly similar shape and size to Pit 1 . It was sub-rounded with a shallow U-shaped profile, c. 0.6m in diameter and up to 0.20m in depth. The fill com- prised red brown silty clay fill with frequent charcoal flecks.

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Fig. 3: Plans of excavated features

Pit 3 (Fig. 3 & Fig. 4)

(Contexts 2164 cut, fill 2163)

This feature was both cut by a medieval plough furrow and truncated by an Iron Age ditch. It was probably originally of similar shape and size to Pit 1 and had a shallow U-shaped profile, c. Elm in diameter and 0.31m in depth. The fill was a red brown silty clay fill with frequent charcoal flecks.

Pit 4 (Fig. 3 & Fig. 4)

(Contexts 1775 cut, fills 1774, 1781 and 1780)

This had a distinct kidney-shaped plan, c. 1.30m by c. 1.0m, with a shallow U- shaped profile c. 0.33m in depth. Its fills were a series of fine yellow brown silty clays.

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT AT HAYTON, E. YORKS.

35

Fig. 4: Sections of excavated features

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YO R K S H I R E ARC H AEO LO GI CAL JOURNAL

THE GROOVED WARE POTTERY by T. G. Manby

A small fragmented Grooved Ware assemblage came from a pit cluster (Table 1), the majority of pieces in the infillings of Pits 1 and 4. The largest fragments do not exceed 5 cm across, and there are featureless pieces less than 1 cm diam- eter classified as flakes if angular and split-off the wall or as crumbs if shapeless and eroded. All sherds show sharp-edged fractures with the exception of GW2. The sherds were examined with a xlO hand lens to determine temper character- istics and to search for organic impressions and carbonised traces. A comparison of fabric and decorative treatment indicates eight to ten vessels are represented. There are no complete profiles and only limited portions of rims and base angles of flat bases are present. From the base angles the vessel wall profiles appear to be slightly splayed outwards, consistent with tub or bucket shapes. Conjoining sherds were sought within each context and then they were compared between contexts. A cross linkage between Pits 2 and 4 was established by the joining pieces of the same vessel GW3 in each of these pits. A single small sherd in Pit 1 with ‘crimped’ decoration may also derive from the same vessel as GW5, in Pit 3, based on their fabric and the rarity of the distinctive decorative technique. The sherds are gener- ally in an un-weathered condition and absence of erosion to broken edges would suggest deposition in the pits during a contemporary infilling event. The ceramic contents of the respective features are described in the excavation archive and are summarized in Table 1 . There are at least six determinable vessels present that are described in the illustrated catalogue below, and possibly three more in terms of fabrics represented by very small sherds amongst the Pit 1 finds. The temper materials present in the Hayton pottery are entirely consistent with local manu- facture, even the igneous fragments may be sourced to the Vale of York series of Devensian Age tills, erratics and gravels.

Pit no.	Context	Sherds	Flakes	Weight	Illustrated
			Sc crumbs	(g)	vessels
Pit 1	(1783)	8	23	20
	(1787)	8		b/D 00 w	GW 1 and GW 2
Pit 2	(2064)	14		57	GW3 and 4
Pit 3	(2163)	2		5	GW 5
Pit 4	(1780)	4	10	20	GW 3
Roman Gully [1866]	(1832)	1		4	GW6
Totals		37	33	184

Table 1: Summary of Grooved Ware Pottery by Feature and Context

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT AT HAYTON, E. YORKS.

37

Illustrated Catalogue (Fig. 5).

GW1: Rim, base angle and two wall sherds of a small bowl, incomplete profile. Rim diameter about 1 15 mm.; base diameter 100 mm. Well-modelled base angle and foot rim to a hollow base. Simple rim, internal zone of diagonal crescentic incision, indications of a criss-cross arrangement. Exterior has modelled converging ridges and grooves, on the lower body linked by an applied lug on one sherd. Hard compact orange-buff surfaces, dark grey core, layered wall structure. Common well rounded fine sand temper, rare angular chalk and igneous fragments, and voids <2 mm. Wall thick- ness 6-7 mm.

Pit 1: Context 1787.

GW2: Two joining fragments of a large thick walled vessel, slightly weathered, interior scaled off. Closely spaced horizontal grooves flanking a moulded wavy-line. Orange-buff exterior, dark grey core, layered wall structure. Common sand, a decayed chalk pebble <7 mm. and some small flakes of charcoal.

Pit 1 : Context 1787.

With the above in Pit 1, infilling layers, were other small pieces in varying fabrics:

a. Three small pieces of a moulded ridge, 6 mm. wide. Compact dark grey fabric, buff surface. Context 1783.

b. A base angle and four small wall sherds. Soft dark grey, orange-buff exterior, interior scaled. Fine sand, scarce igneous fragments and rounded voids <2 mm. Context 1783.

c. Small wall sherd, weathered. Low moulded ridge notched alternately along its upper and lower edges. Compact brown surface, dark grey core, fine angular sand and chalk temper and rare fragments of white flint < 1 mm. Wall thickness 6 mm. Context 1787.

d. Two small sherds, exterior surfaces scaled off. Compact orange, exterior scaled off. Fine sand temper. Context 1787.

GW3: Nine joining sherds of the lower wall and base angle, 170 mm. diameter, also four pieces of flat base and a small wall sherd that do not join. Thin walls show evidence of ring built construction. Hard, compact dark grey fabric, orange-buff exterior. Converging bands of three and four parallel incised lines, with closely spaced diagonal ‘maggot’ impressions between the lines. Plain horizontal lozenge zones are created by the incised bands and there is a triangular zone left where they meet the horizontal band of lines and ‘maggot’ imprints above the base angle - their junction lying be- yond the fragments broken edge. Horizontal tooling around interior base angle. Common temper of angular sand and grog, some voids <3 mm. Wall thickness 6 mm.

Pit 2: Context 2064.

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Joining on to the above - three conjoining base angle fragments in Pit 4, context 1 775.

GW4: Small rim sherd, rounded lip with internal groove; under the lip a plain zone than an incised horizontal line defining a ridge with ill-defined im- pressions. Soapy dark grey, fragments of coarse angular sandstone and voids <3 mm. Wall thickness 4 mm.

Pit 2: Context 2064.

GW5: Small rim and wall fragments of a cup. Expanded rim with internal over- hanging bevel decorated with a closely spaced herring bone of finely in- cised lines. Moulded exterior ridges and grooves, the ridge below the rim is alternately notched along the upper and lower edges. Brittle orange- buff, grey core. Common fine sand temper and scattered angular chalk and flint <2 mm. Wall thickness 6 mm Pit 3. Context 2163.

GW6: Rim sherd; simple lip, fine diagonal crescentic lines (?fmger-nail) over the interior edge. Under the lip are shallow moulded ridges and shallow grooves above an applied rib. Soft orange fabric, fine sand temper, scarce angular chalk fragments and some rounded voids <2 mm. Wall thickness 5 mm.

Residual in Roman Gully cut 1866, fill context 1832.

DISCUSSION

This fragmentary assemblage consists of flat-based tub-shaped vessels, of small size, except for a single sherd, GW2, that derives from a large jar in a coarser fab- ric. All the vessels display two or more decorative elements of horizontal or con- verging ornament by applied strips, grooves or incision that outline elongated loz- enge and triangular areas which with select motifs, such as wavy lines, characterize the Woodlands style, or sub-style of the Grooved Ware tradition (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 238-40). When Ian Longworth defined his four stylistic varia- tions of the Grooved Ware tradition (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 236-48), the Woodlands, Clacton and Durrington Walls styles then had site distributions concentrated in southern England, and distant from the insular cluster of the Rinyo Style in the Orkneys (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 268-306, fig. 97). Over the past three decades numerous discoveries of Woodlands, Clacton and Durrington Walls style sites across the intervening extent of eastern, midland and northern England and Scotland show collectively they each have ‘mainstream’ distributions between the Moray Lirth and the English Channel (Cleal and Mac- Sween 1999, 177-206).

Sharing some stylistic characteristics in decorative motifs, techniques and vessel forms these three defined styles, apart from some showing regional bias, are not

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT AT HAYTON, E. YORKS

39

GW6

GW3

Fig. 5: Woodlands Style Grooved Ware (Scale 1:2)

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

regionally exclusive in their distribution (MacSween 1995; Brindley 1999a and b; Cleal 1999); however, there are still some assemblages that do not conform and may emerge as localized sub-styles. In contrast to the bucket and barrel shapes of the Durrington Walls Style, the Woodlands and Clacton styles are character- ized by open tub-shaped vessel forms and they have some decorative motifs and techniques in common; it has been suggested that Woodlands and Clacton should been seen as developments of a single style in southern England (Garwood 1999, 10). The Woodlands Style, originally recognized by Isobel Smith (1965), was de- fined on fragmentary small vessels from pit clusters near to the Woodhenge mon- ument at Amesbury (Stone and Young 1948; Stone 1949); such Wiltshire sites can now be seen to be close to the southern extent of this mainstream style’s distri- bution. A much broader characterization of the Woodlands Style has been pro- vided by excavations at Balfarg monument complex, Markinch, Fife, in eastern Scotland. This site had a fuller size range of vessel types, including large coarse ware versions. Diagnostic geometric motifs and decorative techniques were well represented along with some casual decorative embellishments (Henshall 1993, 94-103). Close parallels were seen between the Balfarg Riding School and Henge Monument Grooved Ware (Henshall 1993,104-06; Henshall and Mercer 1981, 129) and some Yorkshire assemblages where the Woodlands Style is well repre- sented (Manby 1999, 60-64). The pit assemblages at Hartendale, Flamborough (Manby 1974, 70-74), West Heslerton (Powlesland in prep.), and the Vale of Maw- bray sites at Marton-le-Moor (Tavener and Speed in prep.) all provide a range of vessels from small tubs to large bucket-shaped jars. Urey also display characteris- tic decoration applied variously to the whole or only to the upper exterior (Manby 1996; Abramson 2003).

The Hayton pottery displays some features for further comparison:

GW1. This is a small convex sided bowl, finely modelled and finished with an orange slip coating; but the full profile and the decorative scheme are not ex- tant. lire upper body’s exterior below the rim is decorated with applied diagonal ridges that probably converge at junctions which may have been the site for an applied lug, or ‘knot’, such as that joining the pair of ridges on the lower body. The strongly curved lower zone ridges suggest that they followed an undulating course around the fuller circumference. Comparable small bowls without further embellishment to their ridges occur at Marton-le-Moor ( havener 1996, fig. 3.8; Tavener and Speed in prep.), and further afield from Barholm Pit 13 (Simpson 1993, 20, fig. 12,13), Eye Kettleby, Leicestershire (Woodward forthcoming), and Honington, Cambridgeshire (Piggott 1949, fig. 2. 1-2; Fell 1951, 34, PI. VIII, t-2).

GW2 is a single fragment of a large vessel which has a ‘wavy’ line cordon modelled with the aid of a round tipped tool that is a technique (Cleal 1999, illus. 1.1, c) un- common in Yorkshire but which occurs in the Fimber Church assemblage on two small tubs or cups (Manby 1974, 1 1, fig. 3.1, 2 and, 4). Wavy line cordons modelled in this fashion, and occasionally by excision, are a feature of the Woodlands Style appearing at sites across the full extent of its north-south distribution. They are

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT AT HAYTON, E. YORKS.

41

well represented at Balfarg Riding School (Henshall 1993, 98, P44-5, 53a- 54, 61- 63), in eastern England at Bar 'holme Hollow 8 (Simpson 1993, 18, fig. 11, 17) and Honington (Piggott 1949, fig. 2,3), and in southern England at the Woodlands site (Stone and Young 1948, 292, fig. 2,6). The wavy line motif also appears on a larger scale as an applied strip in some other Grooved Ware styles: in the Rinyo Style of the Orkney sites (MacSween 1995, 42; Sheridan 1999, 119-120, illus. 12.6), and in the Clacton Style at its type site (Longworth 1971, 100, PI. xxxiii, PE).

GW3 is the lower body of a thin walled vessel of small bowl or jar size. Its decora- tion of converging bands of three, and in places four, lines of bold incised parallel lines can be reconstructed as elongated lozenges bounded by a band of horizontal lines just above the base angle. This motif of elongated lozenges variously formed individually or in combination by applied ribs (eg. GWI), grooves and incised line techniques was common to both the Woodlands and Clacton Styles. The latter style favoured the infilling of the enclosed space with point stabbing, short strokes or finger tip rustication (Longworth 1971, 100, fig. 3; P5, 9 and. 47). Comparable use of separate bands of parallel lines that do not join up at their junctions comes from Balfarg Riding School (Henshall 1993, illus. 27, P42), where elongated loz- enge constructs in other techniques are well represented.

GW3 also has a most unusual feature in the ‘maggot’ imprints between the pairs of lines. The fineness of the impressions would suggest the use of a sinew wrapped around a thin flexible core, and not the usual twisted cord. This is a very rare technique for the Woodland Style, the only comparable use being the fine ‘mag- got’ impressions that divide an applied rim pellet of a small bowl from Barholme Pit 13, (Simpson 1 993, 20, fig. 12,34). An anomalous use of a ‘maggot’ imprinting has been commented on for the Clacton Style assemblage from Hunstanton, Nor- folk, where a whipped cord ‘maggot’ formed a ‘stop’ to the grooved decoration, reminiscent of the lugs of ‘knots’ linking the converging lines or moulded ridges that are characteristic of the Woodland Style (Cleal 1993, 42 and 501, fig. 39, P6). In the wider Grooved Ware tradition only in the Durrington Walls Style are there characteristic twisted cord impressions amongst the decorative techniques. How- ever the form of individual ‘maggot’ imprinting was a minor technique, notably rare at the type site (Wainwright and Longworth 1971, 242), and in eastern York- shire sparingly employed at Carnaby Top Site 20 (Manby 1974, 33, fig. 11. 3). The wider employment of ‘maggot’ imprints in the Durrington Walls Style assemblages has recently been reviewed by A. M. Gibson in connection with the internally deco- rated open bowl at Upper Ninepence, Walton, Powys (Gibson 1999, 83, fig. 54, P34), where he specifically observed that such fine quality ‘maggot’ imprints used in a ladder motif could only have been produced by a use of thread whipping in place of the usual thicker twisted cord.

GW5 is a slightly worn rim fragment with an exterior ridge showing faint alter- nate notching along its upper and lower edges. This was made with a point to pro- duce a ‘crimpled’ effect that is a defining technique present at the Woodlands type

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

site (Stone 1949,125, fig. 1, b-d). Widely represented at sites across the Woodlands Style distribution, Balfarg Riding School has many well executed examples of this technique (Henshall 1993, 98, P48-49) along with casual versions producing rows of dots along the edges of the cordon.

Three vessels (GW1, GW4, GW6) have simple rims, and GW5 is the only inter- nally expanded type. Apart from the plain lip GW4, embellishment is confined to diagonal fine incised lines, or possibly finger nail imprints. There are no applied rim features, a common characteristic of the Woodlands Style, (Manby 1 999, 64, table 6.3) but the extent of rim circumferences is very limited. The size range of vessels can only be calculated in terms of diameters:- GW1 and GW3 fit into a 1 50- 200 mm rim diameter range for the small jars/bowls class; GW5 and GW6 are in the c.100 mm rim diameter size range of tubs/cups (Manby 1999, 60); GW2 clearly represents a vessel of larger size.

Over the past three decades evidence for the distribution of Grooved Ware sites has been steadily increasing across Yorkshire (Manby et al. 2003, 55) and in oth- er regions of Northern England (Manby 1974, 3-10; 1999, 69-73). Hayton was the first recognised Grooved Ware association from the Vale of York lowlands. Subsequently a second site in this Wold-foot zone was provided by Durrington Walls Style fragments in the fillings of pit features at Pocklington Water Treatment Works (excavated by Northern Archaeological Associates). Grooved Ware in the Woodlands, Durrington Walls and Clacton Styles is well represented in eastern Yorkshire, from the Wolds to the east and in the Vale of Pickering (Manby 1988, 69-71). Some stray sherds specifically of the Woodlands Style have been recovered from some barrow mound structures (Manby 1974, 13; 1999, 72), but the majority of contexts are fragmentary assemblages associated in small pits, variously single or paired or as clusters. Notable are the single pits at Limber (Manby 1974, 11, fig. 3.1-6), and Langton Wold (Manby 1974, 13, fig. 3.9-10) where only small sized tubs are represented. A wider range of large and small vessel types occurred at Hartendale, Llamborough (Manby 1974, 70-74, fig. 30), Garton and Wetwang Slacks (Manby 1999, 72), and Sewerby Cottage farm (Lenton-4 homas forthcom- ing). These pit clusters occur both at high level on the Wold tops and at low level in dales and slacks. The Hayton location in the gravel zone at the foot of Wolds is comparable to West Heslerton in the Vale of Pickering (Powlesland in prep.).

The Hayton vessels provide no evidence of their usage. There is no carbonized residue encrustation, nor are there wear marks that can be linked to functional activities. Initial results obtained by a research programme of absorbed residue analysis applied to Neolithic pottery have identified the trace signature of pig adi- pose fat in the fabric of 16% of Grooved Ware tradition pottery sampled (Mukher- jee et al. 2007, 748). Details of the styles, decoration and vessel types provided with these results have still to be published. No Grooved Ware from Northern England was included within this programme.

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT AT HAYTON, E. YORKS.

43

Dating

The two dates obtained from carbonized hazel nut shells from Pits 1 and 4 (Table 2) are a significant addition to the slowly increasing number of radiocar- bon determinations obtained on short-life organic material for Yorkshire Neolithic associations.

Falling in the first half of the third millennium B.C. the Hayton dates are out- side the 3100-2900 cal. BC calibration plateau that obscures many of the turn of the fourth -third millennium determinations (Brindley 1999a, 30, illus. 3.4). Comparison of the Hayton determinations can be made with the dates at the Mar- ton-le-Moor sites, in the Vale of Mowbray (Tavener and Speed in prep.) where the Woodlands Style has a date range on charred hazelnut shells of (OXA-5570) 4515 + 55 B.P. to (OXA-5569) 4305 + 55 B.P., that are within a 2 sigma range of 3200-2800 cal. B.C. (Abramson 2003, 115). A further series of determinations on charcoal for this style from Wetwang Slack (HAR-8538) 4340+140 B.P., (HAR- 8539) 3470+140 B.P. and (HAR-8540) 4390+140 B.P; and Barholme, (UB- 457) 4305+135 B.P. from Pit 4 and (UB-458) 4255+135 B.P. for Pit 13, have standard deviation ranges too wide for precise dating (Manby 1999, 68).

The dating range available from Yorkshire for both the Woodlands and Dur- rington Walls Styles can be compared with those obtained for Scottish Grooved Ware styles where some sites have consistently provided dates in a range begin- ning earlier than those obtained in Southern England (MacSween 2007, 373-74, table 33.1). Lor Scotland the Rmyo Style sites in Orkney have the earliest radio- carbon dates in a 3400 and 3100 cal. B.C. range (MacSween 1992, 268-89). Ob- scured by the calibration curve plateau, these probably represent a true date of c.3200 B.C., a century or more older than the earliest dated assemblages from the

Lab.

no.

Context/

material

Convention

Radiocarbon

Age

Calibrated result

(1 sigma,

68% probability)

Calibrated result

(2 sigma,

95% probability)

Beta-

223632

Pit 4,

context

1781, hazel- nut shell

4110 + 50 B.P.

2860-2810 cal. B.C.

2750-2720 cal. B.C. 2700-2580 cal. B.C.

2880-2550 cal. B.C.

2540-2490 cal. B.C.

Beta-

223633

Pit 1, con- text 1787, hazelnut

shell

4250 + 50 B.P.

2900-2870 cal. B.C.

2920-2860 cal. B.C.

2810-2690 cal. B.C.

Table 2: The Radiocarbon Dates

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YO R KS H I RE ARC H AE O LO G I CAL JOURNAL

Scottish mainland (Ashmore 2004, 13E). The major Woodland Style assemblag- es in eastern Scotland, provided by the monument complex of Balfarg Riding School, Fife, had datings on charcoal of short-life tree species from a ditch of (GU- 1670) 4425 + 50 and (GU-1904) 4385 + 55 B.P., 3340-2880 cal. B.C. combined; and from a pit feature of (GU-1902) 4250 + 85 B.P., 3020-2620 cal. B.C. The Wood- lands Style was also considered contemporary with a burning activity phase at the adjacent Balfarg henge that post-dated the pre-3300-2900 B.C. digging of that monument’s ditch (Barclay and Russell-White 1993, 184). The stylistic compari- sons between the extensive Balfarg Riding School assemblage and the pit groups at Hayton and Marton-le-Moor have been described above.

For Yorkshire the dating series at Marton-le-Moor (Abramson 2003) provides a chronological distinction between the Woodlands and Durrington Walls Styles where the latter’s pit group assemblage dates of (OxA-5571 -2) 4025 + 55 B.R and 3990 + 55 B.P provide a combined range of 2870-2300 cal. B.C. at 2 sigma. These compare well with the only Wolds determination for the Durrington Walls style from Burton Agnes Pit 1004 of (NZA-4695) 4160 + 80 B.P, 2915-2570 and (NZA- 4705) 3950 + 70 B.P, 2625-2275 cal. B.C. (Manby 1999, 68). The emerging radio- carbon dating evidence from Yorkshire would support a Woodlands Style curren- cy from the turn of the fourth millennium into the earlier third millennium when there was an overlap usage of the Durrington Walls Style that extended down to the middle of the millennium, if not later.

The early origin of the Grooved Ware style in northern Scotland and its usage subsequently spreading southwards is consistent with a Yorkshire dating sequence preceding in the stylistic chronology its appearance within southern England. In his recent review of the more extensive radiocarbon series available, Paul Gar- wood considered there to be no strong evidence prior to 3000/2900 B.C. for the Grooved Ware styles’ association with southern and eastern England. There the tradition has an overall dated range of 2910-2030 B.C. at a 1 sigma range (Gar- wood 1999, 152-161, illus. 15.2-7). For Wessex and the Upper Thames Valley there are earlier third millennium cal. B.C. dates for the Clacton style. Those available for the Woodlands Style have a later temporal range into the middle of the third millennium B.C. and partially parallel the regional Durrington Walls Style that begins earlier in that millennium and continues down to its end (Gar- wood 1999, illus. 15.5-6). Specifically these southern England radiocarbon datings (Garwood 1999,157-59, illus. 15.6) provide support for his proposition that the Clacton and Woodlands assemblages are sequential developments of a single style (Cleal 1999, 2).

Acknowledgements:

The writer wishes to record his thanks to Dr A.B. Woodward for details of the Eye Kettleby bowl; to B.E. Vyner for unpublished reports on some North York- shire sites and to J. Cruse for bibliographic research.

NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT AT HAYTON, E. YORKS.

45

THE WORKED FLINT by Barry John Bishop

Introduction

The archaeological excavations at Burnby Lane produced a total of 69 pieces of struck flint. Of these, 49 pieces were recovered from the fills of three pits that also contained Grooved Ware pottery and which can be dated to the Later Neolithic period. The remaining 20 pieces were recovered in mostly small numbers from a variety of Iron Age or later contexts. They represent a number of flintworking traditions dating from the Mesolithic or Early Neolithic through to the Bronze Age and all are likely to have been residually deposited. The only Tate’ context

containing any significant quantities of material is an early Roman gnlly [1866], which truncated one of the Grooved Ware pits; the similarities of this material to those from the pit would strongly suggest that it was redeposited from there.

Methodology

All of the pieces were examined by eye and under x20 magnification. They were classified according to a basic typological system and their various metrical and technological attributes recorded on an MS Access database. This, along with a detailed assessment report, is included with the archive.

Condition

The assemblage as a whole is in a variable condition. The assemblages from the pits show little post-depositional damage with most pieces remaining sharp, indicating that they were incorporated into the pits shortly after manufacture and use. The material from the ‘late’ contexts is distinctly more abraded with over half showing some post-depositional damage, in some cases quite markedly. This would be consistent with much of it having been redeposited and ‘kicked around’ for some time, although notably, all of the pieces from gully [1866], which trun- cated a Grooved Ware pit, are in a good condition, supporting the suggestion that these were redeposited directly from the pit.

Raw Material

Two main types of raw material predominate within the overall assemblage and are the only types found within the Grooved Ware pits. The most commonly used of these is a brittle, opaque to very slightly translucent light grey to white nodu- lar flint with a thin and rough but weathered cortex. This type of flint originates within the Wolds chalk (e.g. Henson 1985; Durden 1995) although the presence of thermal flaws suggests that the material here was obtained from glacially derived sources. The other type consists of a translucent speckled light grey or light brown flint, also occasionally retaining a thin rough cortex. This type can be found with-

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

in the glacial tills present across the area and would have been easily obtainable within local alluvial deposits that have eroded from the tills (ibid.). No cores were present but the size of the flakes, which rarely exceed 50mm, suggests that the raw materials used were of small size. Both types had recorticated to some degree although this rarely concealed their colour.

Also present were a few pieces, all from ‘late’ contexts, of translucent black or red flint and opaque reddish-brown and greenish-brown cherty flint, these also likely to have been obtained from fluvio-glacial deposits.

Quantification

Context Type	Flake	Blade	Burin	Miscellaneous retouch	Edge-trimmed	Serrated	Arrowhead	Scraper	Hammerstone/ ball	Total
Pit 1 [1783]	5	1	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	7
Pit 1 [1787]	28	1	0	1	1	1	0	1	0	33
Pit 2 [2064]	5	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	6
Pit 3 [2163]	3	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3
Grooved Ware Pits Total	41	2	0	1	1	1	1	2	0	49

Later Contexts	11	4	1	2	0	0	1	0	1	20

Totals	52	6	1	3	1	1	2	2	1	69

Table 3: Quantification by type and context

Typology, Technology and Dating

The lithic material recovered from the site can be most profitably considered as forming two distinct groups; the material from the Grooved Ware pits and gully [1866], and the assemblages from the remaining ‘late’ contexts. The distinction be- tween these groups was not merely one of context but they also reflect differences in technological strategies and raw material use.

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47

The Grooved Ware Pits

The Grooved Ware pits produced the largest quantity of struck Hint from the excavations, most of which consists of unusable trimming flakes, small Hake frag- ments, cortical flakes, miss-hits and other knapping waste. There are several use- able flakes present, a very high proportion of which had either been retouched or show evidence of utilisation. The material represents two distinct reduction strategies, more or less reflecting the use of the two different raw materials used. One of the grey-brown flint flakes represents a mis-strike of a Eevallois-type core. It appears not to have been struck with sufficient force, causing the fracture to plunge through the back of the core, thus preserving the core’s ‘keeled’ edges and part of a secondary striking platform at its distal end (Fig. 6: 7). Many of the other grey-brown flakes also appear to have been produced using the Leval- lois technique, these exhibiting heavily edge-trimmed platform/face edges, acute and facetted striking platforms, and multi-directional dorsal scars. Conversely, the matt grey-white flakes appear mostly to be the products of more typical single or double platformed flake cores. These generally are narrow and thin with narrow and trimmed striking platforms and uni-directional dorsal scars. One flake from context [1787] preserved remnants of a platform aligned at a right angle near its distal termination, although this would appear to be more of a fortuitous survival rather than an attempt to rejuvenate its core. The reduction strategy was evidently careful and considered, but no systematic blade production was attempted.

Six retouched pieces came from the Grooved Ware pits, representing over 1 2% of the assemblages from these features. One of the most distinctive pieces is the leaf-shaped arrowhead from pit 2. This is a slightly abraded but nearly complete ogival form of Green’s (1980) type 3B (Fig. 6: 1). It was manufactured from a shiny grey-white flint and had pressure flaking extending over most, but not all, of its faces. Such arrowheads are traditionally considered to be characteristic of Early Neolithic assemblages. Green (1980, 94-97) has argued for their continuity into the Early Bronze Age, although Saville (1980, 154) has pointed out that the overwhelming majority of securely contexted leaf-shaped arrowheads have Early- Middle Neolithic associations, these thus pre-dating the use of Grooved Ware. Whether or not the currency of leaf-shaped arrowheads overlapped with the use of Grooved Ware, there are very few direct associations, and at pure Cnooved Ware sites where they are present, they are massively outnumbered by transverse forms (e.g. Green 1980, 108 and table V. 1). The example here is abraded and of a different raw material to the other pieces within the pit. Given the presence of earlier flintwork at the site, including other arrowheads, the most probable ex- planations would be that the arrowhead was either residually incorporated into the pit or, perhaps less likely, represents an exotic and antique item purposefully deposited by the Grooved Ware users.

The other retouched implements from the Grooved Ware pits consist of two scrapers, one a typical short-end type (Fig. 6: 6) and the other, also from the same

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Fig. 6: Worked Flint (Scale 1:2)

context, a horseshoe-shaped primary flake with minimal retouching to its distal edge but with some edge-wear indicating that it had been used as a scraping tool. Also present is a matt grey-white serrated flake with c. 1 0 notches per cm cut along its slightly convex right margin (Lig. 6: 8). It also exhibits some blunting around its distal, possibly a device to aid handling or hafting. It is slightly worn but shows no evidence of ‘silica polish’ along its working edge. The other retouched pieces from the Grooved Ware pits consist of a thin, broken grey-brown flake with very fine, arced, semi-invasive retouch around all surviving edges, possibly a delicate cutting tool (Lig. 6: 10) and the broken distal end of a matt grey-white flake with fine scalar retouch around all of its surviving margins (Lig. 6: 9). This may be a minimally retouched plano-convex knife or possibly the hafting element of another tool. In addition to the retouched items, the Grooved Ware pits produced four flakes that exhibit convincing traces of utilisation and a further utilised flake was recovered

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49

from gully [1866], which probably originates from the pits. Four exhibited evi- dence of regular micro-chipping and/or edge rounding/polishing consistent with being utilised as fine cutting implements and the remainder had wear and damage patterns consistent with use as a piercing-type tool (cf Tringham et al. 1974).

In addition to the retouched implements, several small and very thin flakes, all of grey-brown flint, were recovered from the Grooved Ware pit 1, these consisting of thinning or finishing flakes produced by pressure flaking. At least three of these retain patches of polish on their dorsal surfaces and were evidently struck from a polished implement that had been resharpened or otherwise reworked, although they were all too small to suggest what type of polished implement it was.

In addition to the struck flint is a single broken cobble of burnt chalk weighing 280g recovered from the fill of a ditch that truncated a Neolithic pit. This has been smoothed and exhibits several randomly aligned incised scratches on its surface. Although modified by being burnt, it is uncertain if the rounding and the scratch marks were purposefully executed.

Discussion of the Neolithic Pit Assemblages

Two main types of activity are represented amongst the material from the Grooved Ware pits; waste from knapping and/or tool production, and discarded tools, although the very small quantities involved would suggest that the mate- rial represents the deposition of only selected elements from the flintworking se- quence.

The material represents at least two different technological reduction strategies. The use of the Levallois technique has been documented throughout Britain but it would appear to be particularly associated with Grooved Ware contexts and with particular regions, including parts of Wessex, the Thames Valley and coastal York- shire (Edmonds 1995, 100). The technique was often employed in the production of prestigious implements, including certain types of knives and arrowheads, and again, these often have specific Grooved Ware associations. Also demonstrating a concern with prestigious tool use were the thinning flakes removed from a pol- ished implement. These may suggest that the implement was being repaired, al- though in other Grooved Ware contexts polished axes have sometimes been ‘ritu- ally decommissioned’ through flaking or being burnt, prior to final deposition (eg Cooper and Hunt 2005).

The assemblages from the Grooved Ware pits are technologically homogene- ous although they contained disparate quantities of lithic material. Pit [1784] produced 33 pieces in its primary fill and seven in its upper fill, with no struck flint present within its middle fill, recalling the situation of a Grooved Ware pit at Yeavering in Northumbria (Hope-Taylor 1977, 348-351). Nevertheless, the pres- ence of thinning flakes exhibiting traces of polish in both its primary and upper

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fills indicates that the initial and final phases of its infilling were complementary. Pits 2 and 3 contained six and three pieces respectively in their single fills, whilst pit 4 contained no lithic material at all.

Aspects of the Grooved Ware pit assemblages, including its selectivity, the high proportions and the varied range of retouched implements, the small quantities of knapping waste, the use of the Levallois technique and indications of the working of a polished implement, are all features commonly observed among lithic assem- blages associated with Grooved Ware contexts. The assemblages do not necessarily represent casually discarded flint working waste but they may have been specifi- cally selected and implicated in significant and meaningful depositional practices, as have been documented from many comparable sites throughout Britain (eg Cleal and McSween 1999; Thomas 1999; Harding 2006).

The ‘Late’ Contexts

The bulk of the struck flint from the Iron Age or later contexts consists of a fur- ther distinct industry to those evidenced from the pits. This was predominantly blade-based, with systematically produced blades contributing 20% of the assem- blages from these features. A larger blade, measuring nearly 80mm in length, was recovered from context [1747]; however, this piece was so chipped and abraded that a natural origin for the piece could not be excluded. Complementing these was a transverse blade-core rejuvenation flake of translucent black flint (Lig. 6: 5). This had removed the edge and part of the face of a core in order to rectify a series of hinge and step fractures. Retouched implements from the ‘late’ contexts include the tip of another arrowhead, manufactured from an opaque grey flint. Lrorn the tip alone it cannot be conclusively demonstrated whether this was a leaf-shaped or a barbed and tanged type, although the former seems preferable. In addition, a miscellaneous retouched piece consists of a bifacially flaked translucent black imple- ment that had broken transversely, possibly during its manufacture (Lig. 6: 2). Its shape, size and the techniques of its manufacture strongly suggest that this is an unfinished arrowhead roughout. The remaining two retouched implements from the ‘late’ contexts consist of a burin made on a blade-like flake, the blow executed on the break of a blade-like flake (Lig. 6: 3), and a small truncated-blade (Lig. 6: 4).

A few of the other pieces from the ‘late’ contexts were rather cruder in their production, mostly consisting of short squat and thick flakes.

Discussion of the Assemblages from the ‘Late’ Contexts

The majority of the pieces from the ‘late’ contexts consist of narrow blades and blade-like flakes produced using a careful and systematic reduction technique, characteristic of Mesolithic or Early Neolithic industries. Supporting such a date are the arrowheads, the burin, the truncated blade and a transverse core rejuve- nation flake. They indicate activity at the site pre-dating that of the Grooved Ware

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51

users and that the site was a focus for human activity since at least the Early Neo- lithic and perhaps earlier, although the low number of pieces and the predomi- nance of arrowheads would suggest that it was not extensively occupied, but more likely a short-stay hunting and/or tool repair location.

A few other pieces from ‘late’ contexts, all recovered from Roman or later con- texts, are more crudely produced. These pieces are possibly more characteristic of Middle Bronze Age or later industries although there are far too few to be confident of any such identification. Although some very limited Iron Age flint- working at the site cannot be entirely ruled out, there was no indication that any flintworking was occurring at this time, and it certainly does not appear to have been an important or significant aspect of the activities there. The only lithic find that may be associated with the later occupation of the site was the flint ball from a Roman ditch fill [710]. It consists of a nearly spherical cobble between 61mm and 65mm in diameter that weighs 345g. It surface was entirely covered with incipient Hertzian cones and other evidence of prolonged battering. Such items are often described as hammerstones although its near sphericality and the regularity and extent of the battering over its surface suggests that it was deliberately fashioned and may have had a different function. Similar spherical flint balls were recovered from Bronze Age and Iron Age contexts at Redgate Hill in Hunstanton, Norfolk (Healy et al. 1993, 33, fig 36 L40); described as ‘hammerstones’ or rubbers, it was suggested that they may have been dressed and more suitable for grinding than flint working (re Wymer 1986, 26). Alternatively, of course, the ball may have had a non-utilitarian function, and balls of various materials have been recovered from a variety of different contexts, including Grooved Ware, throughout Britain.

The animal bones identified by Deborah Jaques

Context	Species	Common name	Skeletal element	Isolated tooth wear	Fragment count	Side
Pit 1 (1783)	Bos f. domestic	cattle	metatarsal		1	r
Pit 1 (1787)	Bos f. domestic	cattle	calcaneum		1	1
Pit 1 (1787)	Bos f. domestic	cattle	DP4	j	1
Pit i (1787)	Bos f. domestic	cattle	M1/M2	G	1
Pit 1 (1787)	Bos f. domestic	cattle	M1/M2	C	1

fable 4: The animal bone by context

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The palaeobotanical material identified by Jacqui Huntley

Lollowing the 1999 excavation season the bulk samples were taken during the excavation and processed on-site with at least Hot retained at 500m mesh. In the laboratory a selection of the larger flots was examined at magnifications of up to x50 and notes made of the size, the matrix components and the numbers and broad types of plant remains. The following summarizes the material recorded in the contexts scanned.

Context	Samples	Notes
Pit 1 (1783)	1 95M; ] 80M; 73; 73M	Scraps of charcoal, modern roots, snail shells and mineral. Occasional calcined bone. 1 Triticum cf aestivum grain
Pit 1 (1786)	181 M	Small - mineral and silt, shell and a few bone fragments. Very oc- casional calcined bone, a little cindery charcoal. 2 Cereal indeter- minate, 1 undifferentiated barley, 1 wheat glume .
Pit 1 (1787)	204	Flaky charcoal - mixed species. Occasional shells, calcined bone, very occasional small mammal bone. Charcoal clean and sharp flakes. 20ml scanned and no seeds. One hazelnut fragment.
Pit 4 (1781)	221	Small pieces flaky fragile charcoal. A few shell fragments.
Pit 4 (1780)	52	Small pieces of flaky charcoal and mineral. V. occasional shells and fragments of calcined bone. 1 indeterminate cereal, 1 barley indeterminate.

Table 5: Description of Neolithic samples scanned and assessed.

Summary of hazelnut shell by Rachel Ballantyne

In 2006 further material from the flotation were examined in order to identify material for radiocarbon dating. The following pre-sorted bags of charcoal were scanned under a low-power microscope (x6 - x40). All plant macro-fossils and other artefacts are summarized in Table 6. The samples submitted were pre-sorted charcoal stored within ‘poly-grip’ plastic bags. The hazelnut shell had been col- lected and stored with wood charcoal from the same sample, so sharing of carbon dust will have occurred. Many of the nutshell fragments also have patches of clay with fine sand upon their surfaces.

The one cereal grain is heavily charred and porous, and can only be identified as barley or wheat (. Hordeum/Triticum sp.). There are frequent low amounts of charred

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53

hazelnut shell fragments ( Corylus avellana), which are characteristic of later prehis- toric assemblages in Britain. The eight samples containing hazelnut shells were sorted under a low-power binocular microscope, using freshly cleaned (distilled water, then air-dried) tweezers and Petri-dishes and the charred hazelnut shell fragments recorded before dispatch for radiocarbon dating.

Context	Sample	Number of hazelnut shell fragments	Grain	Pot/Burnt clay	Burnt bone
Pit 1 (1783)	< 196>	3		-
Pit 1 (1786)	<54>	1
Pit 1 (1786)	< 1 83 >	3
Pit 1 (1787)	< 144>	1 1		4 +
Pit 1 (1787)	< 184>	3		+	-
Pit 1 (1787)	<204>	1 1		-	-
Pit 1 (1787)	<205>	8		+
Pit 4 (1774)	<42>			+
Pit 4 (1781)	<221 >	10
Pit 4 (1781)	<57>		1

Table 6: Summary of all plant macro-fossils and other artefacts

Key for fragmented remains: 1 or 2 items, ‘ + ’ <10 items, ' + + ’ 10-50 items

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funding during the 1999 season was provided by BP Chemicals Pic. Thanks to those who funded the excavation in previous years. The work was monitored by AC Archaeology and we are very grateful to Peter Cox and Tania Cottrell of AC Archaeology for their help and support. Much assistance and advice from Stewart Duncan of BP Chemical Pic was gratefully received.

Funding for the radiocarbon dating was kindly provided by the East Riding Archaeological Research Trust.

Help of various kinds was received from local residents especially the Nicholson family, Peter and Liz Edwards, Joe Parkinson of the Plough Inn, Hayton, and Martin Stringer.

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The excavation was conducted by students from Southampton, Hull and Leeds Universities, members of the East Riding Archaeological Society and a large group of local volunteers, including students from various schools.

The supervisors were Ange Brennan, Edward Eastangh, Dominic Holland, Kris Strutt, Wendy Dobbs and Helen Woodhouse. Sonia Collins conducted the flota- tion work on site. We also extend our thanks to supervisors in previous years. Lindsey Kinroy and Richard Middleton processed and mapped material from the roadside settlement.

Funding for the production of an interim report booklet was provided by the Faculty of Arts, University of Hull

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Ashmore, P.J., 2004 Absolute Chronology. In I. A. G. Shepherd & G., B. eds 2004 Scotland in Ancient Europe: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edinburgh, 125-136

Barclay, G. Sc Russell-White, C.J., 1993 Excavations in the Ceremonial Complex of the Fourth to the Second Millennium BC at Balfarg/Balbirnie, Glenrothes, Fife. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 123, 43-210

Brindley, A., 1999a Irish Grooved Ware. In Cleal, R. & MacSween, A. eds 1999a Grooved Ware in Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxbow, 23-35

— , 1999b Sequence and Dating in the Grooved Ware Tradition. In Cleal, R. 8c MacSween, A. eds 1999b Grooved Ware in Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxbow, 133-144

Cleal, R., 1993 Pottery and Fired Clay. In Bradley, R. Chowne, P, Cleal, R. M. J., Healy, F. & Kinnes, I. eds 1993 Excavations on Redgate Hill, Hunstanton, Norfolk, and at Tattershall Thorpe, Lincolnshire : East Anglia Archaeological Report 57

— , 1999 ‘Introduction: The What, Where, When and Why of Grooved Ware’. In Cleal, R. & MacSween, A. eels 1999 Grooved Ware in Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxbow, 1-8

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Durden, E, 1995 The Production of Specialised Flintwork in the Later Neolithic: a case study from the Yorkshire Wolds. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 61, 409-432

Edmonds, M., 1995 Stone Tools and Society: Working Stone in Neolithic and Bronze Age Britain.

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Fell, C.I., 1951 A Late Bronze Age Urnfield and Grooved Ware Occupation Site at Honington, Suffolk.’ Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society 45, 30-41

Garwood, R, 1999 ‘Grooved Ware in Southern Britain. Chronology and Interpretation’. In Cleal, R. 8c MacSween, A. eds 1999 Grooved Ware in Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxbow, 145-164

Gibson, A., 1999 The Walton Basin Project: Excavation and Survey in a Prehistoric Landscape 1993-7 1 18. York: Council for British Archaeology Research Report

Green, H.S., 1980 The Flint Arrowheads of the British Isles, B.A.R. (Brit Series) 75. Oxford: Arch aeo press

Halkon, R, Millett, M. 8c Wooclhouse, H., (in prep) Hayton, East Yorkshire: archaeological studies of the Iron Age a nd Roman landscapes

Harding, J., 2006 Pit-Digging, Occupation and Structured Deposition on Rudston Wold, Eastern Yorkshire. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 25(2), 109-126

Healy, E, 1993 Lithic Material. In Bradley, R. Chowne, R, Cleal, R., Healy, F. 8c Kinnes, I. eds 1993 Excavations on Redgate Hill, Hunstanton , Norfolk, and at Tattershall Thorpe, Lincoln- shire: East Anglian Archaeology 57, 28-39

Henshall, A. S., 1993 The Grooved Ware: Vessels P41-82. In Barclay, G.J. 8c Russell-White, C. J. eds 1993 Excavations in the Ceremonial Complex of the Fourth to the Second Millennium BC at Balfarg/Balbirnie, Glenrothes, Fife.: Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 123, 94-108

Henshall, A. S. 8c Mercer, R., 1981 Report on the Pottery from Balfarg, Fife. In Mercer, R. ed 1981 The Excavation of a Fate Neolithic Henge-type Enclosure at Balfarg, Markinch, Fife, Scot- land: Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 111, 128-133

H enson, D., 1985 The Flint Resources of Yorkshire and the East Midlands. Lithics 6, 2-9

Hope-1 aylor, B., 1977 Yeavering: an Anglo- British centre of Early Northumbria, Department of the Environment Archaeological Reports 7. London: HMSO

Longworth, I.H., 1971 The Grooved Ware Site at Lion Point, Clacton. British Museum Quar- terly 35, 93-124

MacSween, A., 1992 ‘Orcadian Grooved Ware’ In Sharpies, N. 8c Sheridan, A. eds 1992 Vessels for the Ancestors: Essays on the Neolithic of Britain and Ireland in honour of Audrey Henshall. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 259-271

— , 1995 Grooved Ware from Scotland: Aspects of Decoration. In Kinnes, I. 8c Varndell, G. eds 1995 ‘ Unbaked Urns of Rudely Shape’: Essays on British and Irish Pottery for lan Longworth. Oxford: Oxbow Monograph 55, 41-48

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— , 2007 The Melton Bridge Period: The pottery from south and east Scotland twenty years on. In Burgess, C. Topping, P. & Lynch, F. eds 2007 Beyond Stonehenge: Essays on the Bronze Age in Honour of Colin Burgess. Oxford: Oxbow, 367-376

Manby, T.G., 1974 Grooved Ware Sites in Yorkshire and the North of England. British Archaeology Reports 9

— , 1975 Neolithic Occupation Sites on the Yorkshire Wolds. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal 47, 23-59

— , 1988 The Neolithic Period in Eastern Yorkshire. In Manby, T.G. ed 1988 Archaeology in Eastern Yorkshire: Studies in Honour ofT.C.M. Brewster. Sheffield, 35-88

— , 1996 The Pottery: Marton-le-Moor and Roecliffe. A Report Prepared for Northern Archaeological Associates : Unpublished

— , 1999 Grooved Ware Sites in Yorkshire and Northern England 1974-1994. In Cleal, R. & MacSween, A. eds 1999 Grooved Ware in Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxbow, 57-75

Manby, T.G., King, A. & Vyner, B., 2003 The Neolithic and Bronze Age; A Time of Early Agriculture. In Manby, T.G. Moorhouse, S. 8c Ottaway, P. eds 2003 The Archaeology of York- shire: An Assessment at the Beginning of the 21st Century. Leeds: Yorkshire Archaeological Society Occasional Paper 3

Mukherjee, A.J., Berstan, R., Copley, M.S., Gibson, A.M. 8c Evershed, R.P., 2007 Compound- Specific Stable Carbon Isotopic Detection of Pig Product Processing in British Late Neolithic Pottery .Antiquity 81, 743-754

Piggott, S., 1949 Appendix: Grooved Ware from Honington, Cambridgeshire. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 15, 126

Powleslancl, D., in prep

Saville, A., 1990 The flint and Chert Artefacts. In Bell, M. ed 1990 Brean Down: Excavations 1983-1987 . Elertford: English Heritage, 152-157

Sheridan, A., 1999 Grooved Ware from Links of Noltland, Westray, Orkney. In Cleal, R. 8c MacSween, A. eds 1999 Grooved Ware in Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxbow, 1 12-124

— , 2002 Pottery and Other Ceramic Finds. In Barclay, G. Brophy, K. 8c MacGregor, G. eds 2002 Claish, Stirling: and Early Neolithic Structure in its Context: Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 132, 79-88

Simpson, W.G., 1993 The Excavation of a Late Neolithic Settlement at Barholme, Lincoln- shire. In Simpson, W.G. Gurney, D. A., Neve, J. 8c Fryor, F. M. M. eds 1993 Excavations in Peterborough and the Lower Welland Valley 1960-1969: East Anglian Archaeological Report 61, 7-28

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Tavener, N., 1996 Evidence of Neolithic Activity near Martin-le-Moor, North Yorkshire.

Northern Archaeology 13/14, 183-187

Tavener, N. & Speed, G., in prep

Tringham, R., Cooper, G., Odell, Cx., Voytek, B. & Whitman, A., 1974 Experimentation in the Formation of Edge Damage: a new approach to lithic analysis. Journal of Field Archae- ology 1, 171-196

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Woodward, A.B., forthcoming

Wymer, J.J., 1986 Early Iron Age Pottery and a Triangular Loom Weight from Redgate Hill, Hunstanton. Norfolk Archaeology 39(3), 286-294

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THE DRUIDS’ ALTAR: A ‘SCOTTISH’ STONE CIRCLE IN CRAVEN, NORTH YORKSHIRE

By R. Martlew

A topographical and geophysical survey of the Druids' Altar was carried out for the York- shire Dales National Park Authority in 2007 . Several different interpretations of the site have been put forward in the past; the surveys identified additional evidence to support its identification as a Bronze Age Four Poster stone circle, including an outlying stone not previously recorded. A detailed examination of the horizon and view from the site suggest a deliberate choice of location, from which midwinter sunset and the southernmost setting of the moon coincide with prominent horizon features.

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY

The Druids’ Altar (SD 94944 65271) is located in the township of Threshfield, alongside the boundary with Bordley township in the limestone uplands of Cra- ven, North Yorkshire (Fig. 1). Its proximity to Bordley has resulted in the name ‘Bordley Circle’ being frequently used, as in the description by Raistrick (1929, 356). The term ‘altar’ refers to a trilithon setting, for which there is no evidence other than hearsay. In 1878 a local guide book merely used the name ‘Druids’ Circle’ (Thompson 1878, 33). The name appears with alternative punctuation de- pending on the number of druids thought to have been involved: in this paper the genitive plural is used.

Descriptions of the site over the last two centuries have created a degree of con- fusion. In 1892 Speight recorded a 'round stone and earth mound about 150 feet in circumference and 3 feet high, ... formerly surrounded by a circle of upright stones, only three of which are now left standing.’ (Speight 1892, 323). Raistrick, thirty-seven years later, describes a ‘circular bank, 50 feet diameter, about 9 feet wide, and 3 feet high, originally set with upright stones. All the stones but three have been removed...’. In 1970 the site was included by S.W. Feather in a discus- sion of Pennine chambered tombs as a possible example. The interpretation of a crescentic forecourt leading to a chamber is supported by ‘a standing stone... on the eastern side of the forecourt’ and two stone slabs set on edge forming the eastern side of the gallery (Feather and Manby 1970, 397). The most recent de- scription of the site was published by Aubrey Burl with the words ‘Its much robbed mound and displaced stone have led to its interpretation as the open forecourt of a chambered tomb. It is not. It is a 4-Poster.’ (Burl 1988, 73). It was partly to investigate these different views, and the implications of identifying the site as a Four-Poster stone circle, that the present survey was undertaken.

The site today comprises three standing stones set close together on top of a mound, with a prostrate stone lying between them. A second prostrate stone lies

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Fig. 1: Location of the Druids’ Altar. Contours at 0.5 m intervals below 376m OD.

THE DRUIDS’ ALTAR

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394930 394940 394950 394960

Fig. 2: Plan of the Druids’ Altar.

on the southern edge of the mound (P ig. 2). The stones range from 0.7 m to 1.3 m in height above present ground level, the north-east stone being the lowest and slab-like while the other two standing stones are pillars, roughly square in cross- section (P ig. 3); it is not possible to determine the cross-section of the fallen stone, which lies buried to its upper surface, but on this visible side it is 1.6 m in length. The tallest standing stone is at the south-east, and erosion through trampling by stock has exposed it almost to its base on the southern side. A small flat-topped block, triangular in plan and about 0.5 m maximum width, is just visible above ground level on the south-west of the setting. The only other stones in the im- mediate area are rounded cobbles that have been exposed around the south-east standing stone. The second prostrate stone, some 5 m to the south of the main setting, measures 1.7 m in length and has a pronounced keel on its western encl.

The mound in which the standing stones are set may itself be sitting on a slight platform about 1 5 m in diameter, but the extent of damage to the site makes it very difficult to identify this except around the southern and western sides. The topographical survey recorded the many undulations in the top of the mound and the indentation on the southern side that had suggested a crescentic forecourt. It appears that trenches have been driven in towards the centre from the south, north and north-east. The central area, between the standing stones, is some 0.15 - 0.20 m below the highest point of the mound, and the prostrate stone is clearly

465260 465270 465280

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Fig. 3: Profiles of the standing stones at the Druids’ Altar.

lying deeper than this. The disturbance may have resulted from a combination of robbing for walling-stone and antiquarian investigation, and has been exacer- bated in recent years by stock using the stones as rubbing-posts. The extent of all this activity makes it difficult to substantiate the suggestion that the monument is a chambered tomb. Much of the disturbance may have taken place in the thirty- seven years between the descriptions by Speight and Raistrick, turning the mound reported by the former into the circular bank described by the latter.

Approximately 40m to the west, and previously unrecorded, are the slight and indistinct remains of a second mound. It is lower and less regular, and has also suf- fered from the construction of the adjacent stone wall. It does, however, suggest an artificial enhancement at the end of the natural east-west ridge on which both mounds are located.

THE DRUIDS’ ALTAR

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RECENT INVESTIGATION

In 2007 The Yorkshire Dales Landscape Research Trust was commissioned to carry out a detailed survey of the site by the Yorkshire Dales National Park Au- thority, in advance of consolidation work. The Trust organised a series of comple- mentary evening classes at Craven College in Skipton, and involved members of the local community in the survey work. Details of the surveys are contained in a report submitted to the National Park in February 2008, and the results are sum- marised here with an extended discussion.

Geophysical Survey

Earth resistance and gradiometer surveys were carried out over an area 80 m east-west by 60 m north-south, including the low mound to the west of the Druids’ Altar (Fig. 4). The resistance survey gave the clearest results, although the thin soils allow considerable background interference from the underlying bedrock. This is a particular problem on limestone, where sub-surface erosion can pro- duce regular patterns in the bedrock surface on a similar scale to archaeological features. The resistance plot shows the main site as an oval-shaped low resistance anomaly (A), running south-west to north-east across the trend of the local topog- raphy. Around the south-western end it corresponds roughly to the outer limits of the platform that was recorded on the surface. The north-eastern end of the oval has been disturbed by the construction of the stone wall, and nothing is clearly vis- ible on the surface apart from a few small quarry scoops.

The resistance plot also shows a band defining a shorter oval that crosses this anomaly to the south of the stone wall (B). This band appears to join and enclose at least two lower resistance anomalies (C). Although this may relate to natural jointing in the bedrock, it could represent a stone bank surrounding the mound in between holes that once held larger stones. This would tie in with Speight’s description of the site in 1892, which states that the stone circle ‘surrounded’ the mound, but it can only be confirmed by excavation. The mound on which the stones are set appears on the plot as a circular area of mid-range resistance. The pattern of anomalies within this appears to reflect areas of disturbance visible on the surface, with the higher resistance indicating surviving cairn material.

The resistance survey clearly shows the adjacent low mound to the west as a contrasting high anomaly, within which there is a circular band of lower resistance (D). A small anomaly on the western side of this ring (E) corresponds to the only significant response detected by the gradiometer survey over the whole area, and requires further investigation to determine its significance.

The geophysical survey therefore has produced evidence that might support the earliest detailed description of the site, as a mound surrounded by a stone setting. The implication of Speight’s account is that the three surviving stones are part of

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Fig. 4: Results of the geophysical survey.

this setting, but this, along with the reputed altar trilithon, is open to question. The evidence suggests considerable damage to the mound by trenching between the stones, and supports the interpretation of the Druids’ Altar as a Lour-Poster stone circle rather than a chambered tomb. There appears to be a ring ditch cut into the mound to the west of the site, but any further interpretation of this feature and the magnetic anomaly would require closer investigation.

Analysis of location and potential astronomical alignments

Burl (1988, 73) notes that the Druids’ Altar stands ‘at the edge of a terrace from which the land falls steeply to the west’. The present survey has considered this in more detail, and extended the analysis of the site’s location to include the horizon as viewed from the centre of the stone setting.

The two mounds are situated on the end of a low east-west ridge, overlooking a steep-sidecl dry valley to the west (Lig. 1). The pasture immediately around the site

r HE DRUIDS’ ALTAR

65

is free of stones, but large earthfast boulders are scattered across the fields within and on the opposite side of the valley. It is a striking feature of the location of the Druids’ Altar that a distant view to the horizon occurs in a restricted direction towards the south, as shown by the viewshed analysis in Fig. 5. Based on a digital terrain model of the surrounding landscape, the analysis (kindly undertaken by Dr Andy Evans of the University of Leeds) shows areas that are likely to be visible to an observer standing between the stones of the Druids’ Altar, in the absence of anv restrictions due to vegetation or the weather. The areas highlighted on the

390000 4-00000 410000

300000 400000 410000

Fig. 5: Viewshed analysis of digital terrain data showing main areas visible from the Dru- ids’ Altar, including Pendle Hill in the south-west corner and the high ground of Hetton Common Head and Weets Top closer to the site. The terrain data are relatively coarse, but indicate that the stone circle would have to be built in open ground for these views to be achieved.

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diagram are as high or higher than the observation point, and so indicate the dis- tance from the site to landscape features that create its horizon view.

A detailed survey of these features was carried out from an approximately central point between the stones (SI) 94944.818 65271.915; 375.75 m OD) to investigate whether this phenomenon has any significance in terms of astronomical events such as the rising and setting positions of the sun and moon. The section show- ing the southern horizon (Lig. 6a) demonstrates how the relatively high and close horizon dips towards a distant, low segment between 185 and 215 degrees (all azimuths are from True North). The view is across the gently sloping foreground to where the land suddenly drops away at the end of the dry valley. At the western end of this distant horizon segment is the prominent hump of Pendle Hill, rising to 557m OD at a distance of 17 miles. In a landscape of long slopes and rounded hills rather than sharp mountain peaks the view dramatically emphasises Pendle’s steep eastern face. This distant view disappears within fifty or sixty metres either side of the standing stones. To the west of Pendle Hill the horizon is much closer, and climbs slightly to the twin peaks of Hetton Common Head (SD 927628, 405 nr) and Weets Top (SD 926632, 41 1 m), just over 3 km from the Druids’ Altar. Al- though not impressive in terms of altitude, the view to these hill-tops is enhanced by the deep dry valley in the foreground.

The southernmost setting positions of the sun and moon in 2000 BC (Ruggles 1999, 57) are shown against this horizon in Lig. 6b. The midwinter sun sets in the col between Hetton Common Head and Weets Top, and the moon at its lowest in the southern sky will be seen setting behind the distinctive bulk of Pendle Hill. Whatever the interpretation of the site itself, the Druids’ Altar is positioned within a very restricted area from which both of these phenomena can be seen.

DISCUSSION

Morphology and classification

The title of this paper echoes Aubrey Burl’s report on two sites in Northumber- land that he identified as Lour Poster stone circles, outliers from a significant con- centration of similar sites in eastern Scotland (Burl 1971). In his comprehensive catalogue of known Lour Posters he included the Druids’ Altar as the one ‘certain’ example in Yorkshire, with only two any farther south in England and more dis- tant from the main group of twenty-nine sites in Perthshire (Burl 1988, 72-3 and Lig. 1). In considering the Druids’ Altar, Burl interprets the prostrate stone that now lies near the centre of the site as the original fourth member of the setting, broken from the flat triangular block that would mark the south west corner. This potential reconstruction would place the highest stone at the south-west, diago- nally opposite the lowest at the north-east - a feature that Burl identifies as a ‘vital attribute’ of Pour Posters (ibid., 13). The three standing stones mark two sides of a rectangle 2.8 m by 3.6 m, but they also stand on a circle approximately 4.5 m in

THE DRUIDS’ ALTAR

67

diameter. This derivation of a rectangular setting from four points on a circle is a common trait shared with thirty six other sites of this type. The proposed bro- ken stump lies a mere 0.5 m inside this circle, which could easily result from the disturbance to the mound and the collapse of the monolith. The dimensions of the rectangle give an enclosed area of 10.08 sq m, placing the Druids’ Altar at the smaller end of the standard size range. This is consistent with the inverse relation- ship between size and distance from the main concentration noted by Burl.

About a quarter of the Four Posters in Burl’s catalogue are set on mounds, but the lack of recent excavation makes it impossible to determine how common a surrounding bank may have been. Sixteen Four Posters are laid out on or close to the cardinal points of the compass, and an outlying stone has been identified at seventeen sites. If originally erected in its present position, the prostrate stone on the edge of the mound at the Druids’ Altar would have extended the north-south alignment of the easternmost pair of standing stones.

sun at midwinter

southernmost moon

i r

■■! I

I

Pei.dk- 1 ill]

Helton

Common

Weets

lop

to

o

to	to	to
	to	u>
o	o	o

to

fv

o

Fig. 6(a): The southern horizon plotted as altitude relative to a viewpoint between the stones at the Druids’ Altar. The most distant segment is to the west of true south, from 185 to 2 15 degrees.

Fig. 6(b): Detail of the south-western horizon, with Pendle Hill at the junction between far- and middle-distance views. The arcs indicate the declination of the upper limb of the southernmost moon (-29.7 deg.) and the midwinter sun (-23.7 deg.) in 2000 BC.

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Wider significance of the site

Since its emphatic identification by Aubrey Burl there has been little discussion of the significance of the Druids’ Altar as a distant outlier from the concentra- tion of Four Poster stone circles in eastern Scotland. The site bears a close resem- blance to one of the few excavated examples at Lundin Farm South East (Stewart 1966), including the presence of a surrounding bank as suggested by the resist- ance survey, the incorporation of an outlier and the existence of possible sightlines to prominent features on the horizon. Geographically closer sites are less directly comparable (Burl and Jones 1972).

Burl (1988, 26) takes a diffusionist view of the spread of Four Posters from their Tayside ‘heartland’ both locally and into other parts of Britain, in the context of the search for new areas to cultivate and expanding mineral prospection during the Bronze Age. The main concentration in this heartland is linked both geo- graphically and typologically to the Clava Cairns and the Recumbent Stone Circles of north-east Scotland, but the possibility of timber versions of Four Posters should also be borne in mind as having the potential to extend the distribution repre- sented by the stone settings.

In a recent study of three Recumbent Stone Circles, Bradley has emphasised structural complexity and suggested that architectural traits may be selected from an available repertoire rather than expressing the movement of a developing style (Bradley 2005). At the Park of Tongland Four Poster, excavation suggested a com- plex sequence of activity during which the four stones did not all stand at the same time (Russell-White et al. 1992), and this is a possibility to be considered at the Druids’ Altar. As Bradley points out, ‘it is difficult to chart the spread of particular architectural devices when so little is known about the chronology of stone circles’ (Bradley 2005, 4). Outside the concentration on Tayside, the extremely rapid fall- off in the known distribution may suggest that the Druids’ Altar was designed from a reacly-made package of ideas that came directly from Scotland. Wider ar- tefactual evidence suggests links between other parts of Yorkshire and Scotland in the Bronze Age (Manby, King and Vyner 2003, 1 10 - 1), and the Craven uplands are rich in lead and also have deposits of copper. It may be no coincidence that the next ‘certain’ example of a Four Poster to the south of the Druids’ Altar is in the equally mineral-rich Peak District, but isolated examples such as these are difficult to interpret without additional supporting evidence on a regional scale.

Astronomical potential

The incorporation of alignments to significant astronomical events (rising and setting positions) is now well established in prehistoric sites of different types and periods throughout Britain (Ruggles 1999). Evidence has also grown from a number of studies for the inclusion of horizon features as foresights or mark- ers against which to observe such phenomena, although there has been a retreat

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69

from the original claims of very high precision alignments proposed by Alexander Thom (Thom 1967 and 1971). Air investigation of the short stone rows on the Isle of Mull suggested that a combination of prominent peaks and long-distance views may have been significant factors in the choice of location for these sites (Martlew and Ruggles 1996). There is clearly no blue-print that was rigidly followed, and even within a relatively well-defined group such as the Scottish Recumbent Stone Circles there is some variation in the combinations of targets that were selected (Ruggles and Burl 1985). Four Poster stone circles suffer from the practical dif- ficulty of identifying potential alignments, since the closely-spaced stones cover wide segments of the horizon; where the horizon is also flat and featureless it is virtually impossible to propose the deliberate indication of an astronomical event (for example the Four Poster at Corogle Burn: Thom 1971, 70 and Ruggles 1999 table 2.3). Long distance views and the orientation of the stones of Four Posters on prominent peaks has, however, been noted as a distinctive feature (Burl 1988, 37), but this has not yet been followed up by any comprehensive and rigorous analysis of the group as a whole.

Using the stones as an indicator of viewing position rather than to create align- ments, the horizon seen from the Druids’ Altar presents a coincidence of features that suggests a deliberate choice of location on the part of the circle builders. Mid- winter sunset and the setting of the southernmost moon are not marked with any great precision: Pendle Hill provides a coarse foresight around 5° in width. The significance lies in overall visual impact rather than minute observational detail (Fig. 7). The factor that is common to both horizon foresights is that the sun and the moon will never have been seen to set any closer to due south - the direction indicated by the easternmost pair of standing stones and, potentially, the outlier. The solar alignment will of course have been observable on an annual basis, but the southernmost position of the setting moon is only reached over an 18.6 year cycle. This is the length of time taken for the moon’s monthly rising and setting extremes to move between their northernmost and southernmost positions on the horizon, and back again. It is complicated by other factors that would require gen- erations of observation before the cyclical nature of the moon’s movements in the sky could be determined in any great detail. The practical difficulties of observing the moon over the necessary length of time, and the coarseness of the foresight, argue against any suggestion of a high-precision alignment towards Pendle Hill, but the setting moon would never be seen any further south on the horizon than this conspicuous feature.

Although the Druids’ Altar has connections to a more northerly stone circle tra- dition, there is evidence in the local area and more widely in northern England for a long period of interest in astronomical observation, particularly in terms of solar alignments. The southern entrances of the Late Neolithic henge monuments at

o o

Thornborough allow a view to the horizon where the midwinter sun rises (Hard- ing, Johnson and Goodrick 2008). In large henges such as these the high bank creates a close, artificial horizon from ground-level in the interior, restricting the

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YO R KS H I RE ARC H AEO LOG I C AL J O U R N AL

Fig. 7: Sunset at the Druids’ Altar a few days before the winter solstice 2007.

view outwards to the distant horizon through the opposed entrances. It has been suggested that the view thus defined may have incorporated prominent landscape features, but the combination of this with astronomical events has not been ex- plored in detail (Harding and Lee 1987).

The henge at Mayburgh in Cumbria is of particular interest due to antiquar- ian evidence for a Four Poster stone setting in the centre, laid out close to the cardinal points (Burl 1988, 27). From beside the single surviving standing stone a wide stretch of level horizon can be seen through the entrance, and this includes the point at which the sun rises around the time of the equinox. This has to be a calculated rather than a directly identified event, but it is an alignment that is also indicated at the nearby stone circle of Long Meg and her Daughters, where signifi- cantly larger stones mark points that are due east and west of the centre.

Closer to the Druids’ Altar, the full horizon is visible above the smaller banks of the two Pennine henges at Yarnbury and Castle Dikes. At Yarnbury midwinter sunrise occurs above the right-hand side of the entrance, from a relatively feature- less horizon, and at Castle Dikes the equinoctial sun rises up the strikingly steep northern face of Penhill Beacon (although the unimpressive entrance is around

THE DRUIDS’ ALTAR

71

15 degrees to the south of this from the approximate centre of the henge). These phenomena can be deduced unequivocally from careful survey and calculation, but the critical question is whether they were at all significant to the builders of the monuments, and were deliberately incorporated into considerations of loca- tion and design. Beyond the basic requirements of layout, monument builders may have selected and adapted ideas from a range of possibilities to meet local circumstances, as was demonstrated by the analysis of stone rows on the Isle of Mull. This adds to the difficulty of applying a rigorous statistical approach to the evidence from the Druids’ Altar, isolated as it is from its likely peers and in a very different landscape. The site’s location, however, is critical to the sun- and moon- set phenomena being not only visible but visually striking, and after more than 3000 years this may be the strongest argument that can be mustered for deliberate intention on the part of the builders.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite confused antiquarian descriptions, the Druids’ Altar represents a con- vincing example of a Lour Poster stone circle, and the only one of its kind that has been identified in Yorkshire. Others such as the ‘uncertain’ and ‘dubious’ settings on the North York Moors may be variants, and yet others may have been de- stroyed or even constructed with timber posts rather than standing stones and so be far less visible in the landscape. The present distribution of Lour Posters shows a concentration in eastern Scotland, but the mechanism by which such a distinctive construct arrived in the Craven Pennines requires much further research into the wider Bronze Age context in this extended northern region.

The Druids’ Altar marks a location on the edge of the Craven uplands with a narrowly constrained and visually striking long-distance view towards Penclle Hill, and to the twin peaks of Hetton Common Head and Weets Top in the middle distance. These features stand out on the horizon (Lig. 7), and mark the southern- most setting positions of the moon and sun respectively (Lig. 6b). To find a mega- lithic setting at such a location is unlikely to be coincidence, but this is difficult to prove in an individual case; that the megalithic setting should be of a type that has its main focus some 186 miles to the north adds enormously to the potential significance of this site.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The surveys were carried out in conjunction with a community archaeology course organised by the Yorkshire Dales Landscape Research Trust. The support of the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority, Craven College and the land- owner and tenant farmer is gratefully acknowledged. Lig 5 was prepared with the assistance of Dr Andy Evans of the Department of Geography, University of Leeds.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bradley, R. 2005. The Moon and the Bonfire. An investigation of three stone circles in north- east Scotland. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edinburgh

Burl, H.A.W. 1971. ‘Two “Scottish” stone circles in Northumberland’, A rchaeologia Aeliana 49, 37 -51.

— 1988. Four-Posters. Bronze Age Stone Circles of Western Europe, British Archaeological Reports British Series 195, Oxford.

Burl, H.A.W. and Jones, N. A. 1972. ‘The excavation of the Three Kings stone circle, North- umberland’, Archaeologia Aeliana 50, 1-14.

Feather, S. and Manby, T.G. 1970. ‘Prehistoric chambered tombs of the Pennines’, YAJ 42, 396-7.

Harding, AT. with Lee, G. 1987 Henge monuments and related sites of Great Britain , Brit- ish Archaeological Reports British Series 175, Oxford.

Harding, J., Johnson, B. and Goodrich, G. 2008. Archaeoastronomy and the Monument Complex of Thornborough, North Yorkshire’, in Boughey, K. 2008, 34-43. Boughey, K. 2008, ed. Prehistory Research Section Bulletin, 45. Yorkshire Archaeological Society, Leeds.

Manby, T.G., King, A. and Vyner, B. 2003. ‘The Neolithic and Bronze Ages: a time of early agriculture’ in Manby, T.G., Moorhouse, S. and Ottaway, P. 2003, 35 - 113. Manby, T.G., Moorhouse, S. and Ottaway, P, 2003, eels, The Archaeology of Yorkshire. An assessment at the beginning of the 2 1st century. Yorkshire Archaeological Society Occasional Paper 3, Leeds.

Martlew, R. and Ruggles, G. 1996. ‘Ritual and Landscape on the West Coast of Scotland: an Investigation of the Stone Rows of Northern Mull’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 62, 117-31.

Raistrick, A. 1929. ‘The Bronze Age in West Yorkshire’, YAJ 29, 354 - 65.

Ruggles, C. 1999. Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland, Yale University Press, Yale.

Ruggles, C. and Burl, A. 1985. ‘A new study of the Aberdeenshire stone circles, 2: interpre- tation’, A rchaeoastronomy 8, S25 - S60.

Russell-White, C.J., Lowe, C.E. and McCullagh, R.PJ. 1992. ‘Excavations at three Early Bronze Age burial monuments in Scotland’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 58, 285

— 323.

Speight, H. 1892. Craven and the North-West Yorkshire Highlands, Elliot Stock, London.

Stewart, M. 1966. ‘The excavation of a setting of standing stones at Lundin Farm, near Aberfeldy, Perthshire’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 98, 126 - 49.

Thom, A. 1967. Megalithic Sites in Britain, Oxford.

— 1971. Megalithic Lunar Observatories , Oxford.

Thompson, J. R. 1878. Guide to the District of Craven and the Settle and Carlisle Railway, Settle.

EXCAVATIONS AT LOW FISHER GATE, DONCASTER, SOUTH YORKSHIRE

By J. M. McComish, A. J. Mainman, A. Jenner and N. Rogers

(York Archaeological Trust)

The excavations at Low Fisher Gate, Doncaster, South Yorkshire, produced a sequence of urban deposits dating from the late eleventh/ twelfth to the eighteenth century. These included riverside structures of early thirteenth-century date, made in part from reused boat timbers, together with a series of superimposed tenement buildings of thirteenth- to sixteenth-century date and some post-medieval features. The site seems to have had mixed domestic and indus- trial functions throughout its history.

INTRODUCTION

Archaeological excavations were undertaken by the South Yorkshire Archaeol- ogy Field and Research Unit in 1993-94, at Low Fisher Gate, Doncaster, South Yorkshire (NGR SE 57508 03716), in advance of a major road-building scheme on behalf of the Borough Engineering Department of Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council (D.M.B.C.). Initially two evaluation trenches were excavated on the site, followed by the main excavations, which took place within a circular coffer dam 37m in diameter (an area of 1076m2), making this one of the largest archaeo- logical excavations to have taken place within Doncaster. The main excavation was directed by Jane McComish, seconded from York Archaeological Trust; the Trust has also undertaken post-excavation assessment, analysis, research and dissemina- tion.

The maximum depth of deposits excavated was c.3.4m below ground level, which was 10. 1-1 0.4m above Ordnance Datum (AOD), but this was not achieved across the entire site. It was not possible to excavate all the archaeological deposits within the time available; no pre-eleventh-century remains were recovered, and features of late eleventh- to twelfth-century date were only exposed over a lim- ited area. The excavations revealed a sequence of well-stratified urban deposits of thirteenth- to sixteenth-century date, together with some post-medieval fea- tures. Among the most significant finds were portions of two medieval clinker- built boats, which had been reused in riverside revetments, and a well-stratified collection of pottery that forms an excellent type-series for the town of Doncaster. The reused boat timbers have been reported elsewhere (Allen et al 2005), as has the environmental evidence from the site (Flail, Kenward and McComish 2003).

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Post-excavation work undertaken in 1994-95 produced a detailed archive re- port which included a full description of the stratigraphic sequence (described by phases subdivided into groups of related contexts), together with the results of investigations into all of the artefacts recovered and environmental analysis of soil samples from the site. Consultation copies are stored at D.M.B.C., Doncaster Museum and Art Gallery, the South Yorkshire SMR, held by South Yorkshire Ar- chaeology Service, and in microfiche form at the National Monuments Record Office. The tenement labelling system used here is different from that used in the archive report; for clarity the subdivisions of Tenement X are labelled XI -3 rather than V-X.

I his article represents a summary of the 1994-95 archive report, which is far too detailed to be reproduced in full. For each group of phases there is a description of the stratigraphic sequence (by J. M. McComish), together with a summary of the associated pottery (by A. J. Mainman and A. Jenner) and artefactual data (by N. Rogers). The development of the building types present (by J. M. McComish) is included, together with a full pottery report (by A. J. Mainman and A. Jenner) containing a detailed analysis of the pottery sequence for Tenement Y and a dis- cussion of the overall pottery sequence.

Some of the original post-excavation research is not included in the summaries within this article; the flints, together with the Roman artefacts (glass, coins and ceramic building material), are not summarised as they represent residual mate- rial. All of the architectural fragments were robbed from higher-status buildings elsewhere in Doncaster and brought to the site for reuse as building material. They therefore add little to the discussion of the history of the site, save to say that the inhabitants recycled any conveniently available stone in their building work. Only six of the sixty-eight architectural fragments were sufficiently diagnostic for either their original form or a date at which they were originally manufactured to be suggested; only these six are mentioned directly in the text. The medieval ceramic building material is discussed only in terms of its relationship to the struc- tures present on the site, rather than as a collection in its own right. The medieval ceramic building material offers potential for further research, but this lies outside the scope of this article. Ideally this material needs to be researched in relation to comparative material from Doncaster, and in relation to the stratigraphic sequence from the site, in order to devise a series of fabrics and forms for the town, and to record the standard medieval brick sizes present, as these often varied from town to town. Relatively few medieval coins were present on site (sixteen examples), of which fourteen were residual. These are not catalogued below as they add little to the interpretation of the site. The waterfront timbers, together with associated waterproofing materials, are not discussed as they have been published elsewhere. The environmental analysis of soil samples from the site has also been published elsewhere, so is referred to here only where necessary for the interpretation of specific features. Should any specialists require access to any of the data not sum- marised here, the original site archive should be consulted.

DONCASTER FISHER GATE

75

In an effort to keep lists of numbers to a minimum, individual context numbers and group numbers are given only where necessary. All dimensions are in the form length x breadth x depth/thickness/height, unless otherwise stated. Artefacts are numbered as SF (small find) throughout the text. Unless otherwise stated all hearths were up to 1 x lm in area and comprised limestone fragments set in clay. Deposits with exceptionally straight edges were interpreted as accumulating against sill-beams placed directly on the ground; in the interests of brevity the text simply states that there were sill-beams where such patterns occurred. Heights above Ordnance Datum are listed as AOD. It was not possible to illustrate every excavated feature; those not shown are marked ‘not illustrated’ in the text.

v™-8 Excavation area ■■ Evaluation trenches / boreholes

0 100 200 300 feet

Fig. 1: Location of the site

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YORKSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A detailed history of the town is beyond the scope of this article, though a brief summary of the topographical and economic development of Doncaster, concen- trating on the twelfth-eighteenth centuries (i.e. relating to the features excavated at Low Fisher Gate), is provided here to place the excavations in context. Doncaster is located at the highest navigable point of the River Don where the river divides into two branches, called the Don and Cheswold. A Roman fort was built to the south of the River Cheswold, around which a civilian settlement was established, the focus of which may have been in the area of the present market place, as numerous remains were uncovered there during construction work in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Pollington 2007, 4.2.12). The history of this site in the immediate post- Roman period is obscure. A settlement at Doncaster is mentioned in Simeon of Durham’s Historia Regum as being destroyed by fire in AD 764 (Buckland et al 1989a, 31). The possibility of water-oriented riverside tofts in Fisher Gate of this period has been suggested (ibid, 58), and activity of this date was hinted at by the excavations. It has been suggested that a burlr with defensive ditches was constructed on the site of the Roman fort in the sixth or seventh century (ibid, 72 and 84). A recent redat- ing of the pottery from these features to the late Roman period, however, removes much of the supporting evidence for this interpretation (Vince 2003, 1). Uncer- tainty therefore remains about the form and character of Doncaster at the time of the Norman Conquest. Doncaster appears as part of three separate manors in the Domesday survey, rather than as a place in its own right, with the greater part lying in the manor of Hexthorpe (Barber 2007a, xxii). The manor of Hexthorpe con- tained a church and two mills, and, while their location is not specified, it is probable that the church and possibly one of the mills were in Doncaster (ibid, xxiii). No free- men or burgesses are mentioned in Doncaster in the Domesday Book (ibid, xxiii).

The town underwent major changes following the Norman Conquest. A motte and bailey castle was built on the site of the Roman fort, possibly as a response to the northern rebellion of 1069 (Pollington 2007, 4.4.1), and the presence of a street called French Gate may imply Norman settlement in the town (Barber 2007a, xxiii). The street pattern in the centre of the town was largely determined by the presence of a town ditch and rampart, which was